PART I
TECHNICAL AND REVIEW PAPERS (Contd.)

RECREATIONAL USE OF FRESHWATER FISHERIES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Peter H. Tombleson

National Anglers' Council, England

INTRODUCTION

Freshwater fisheries in the U.K. are of considerable value in both recreational and commercial terms. In Scotland particularly, and to a lesser extent in Wales and Northern Ireland, salmon and migratory trout fisheries support a significant industry.

The status of recreational fisheries in the U.K. was defined in 1961 when the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Committee, set up 4 years earlier by the Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, reported in the following terms:

“As rod and line fishing (angling) is mainly recreational its value in material terms is difficult to assess but the capital value of rod fisheries runs into millions of pounds…. The main value of angling, however, is not economic but sociological. While we cannot suggest a suitable standard by which it can be measured, it is accepted generally that angling plays an increasingly important part in the life of the community by providing pleasure and enjoyment to a great and growing number of people, town dwellers as well as country folk….”

THE RESOURCE

The total area of freshwater in the U.K., including estuaries, is estimated at 2448 km². In England and Wales there are 40 000 km of non-ztidal rivers, 3 200 km of tidal rivers, 4 800 km of canals and 22 000 ha of water supply reservoirs. There are approximately 2 112 km of rivers and 66 000 ha of lakes in Northern Ireland.

The extent of recreational and commercial freshwater fishing can be gauged in England, Wales and Northern Ireland by the number of rod and commercial licences issued (Table 1). No licences are issued in Scotland for either recreational or commercial fishing although the Committee for Salmon and Trout Fisheries, set up in 1965 by the Secretary of State for Scotland, recommended a licensing system. In Scotland the extent of angling and commercial fishing may be gauged from the declared catch. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland anglers are required to report their catches of salmon and sea trout caught on rod and line. In Scotland proprietors of rod fisheries are required to make reports of salmon and sea trout caught on their waters. In all cases commercial fishermen must report their catches.

There is no requirement in England and Wales for anglers to report about non-salmonid freshwater fish caught although the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act of 1975 allows for this.

It will be seen that, although 246 410 nonmigratory trout licences were sold in England and Wales, there are no catch reports for this category. This is because there is no requirement to report numbers of trout caught on private waters to any central national agency although private clubs usually record their catches. In the case of trout fishing reservoirs in public ownership, records are kept at individual waters but are not compiled nationally.

A privately compiled review in 1978 of 27 major English and Welsh reservoirs showed a total catch of 502 658 brown and rainbow trout. Based on an average weight for both species of 637 g, the total weight caught amounted to 320 632 kg or 315 tons.

Three major structural changes within the water industry in England and Wales have affected the licensing of recreational fishing. There were originally (from 1948) 32 administrative units (river boards) issuing licences based on a river catchment system. These were reduced (from 1963) to 27 river authorities and ultimately (from 1974) to 10 water authorities. This brought about an overall reduction in the types of rod licences issued with increases in the areas covered by some rod licences. Statistical comparisons are therefore not always accurate but give a general indication of the extent of recreational fishing.

Table 1. Fishing licences issued, and catches reported in the U.K. during 1977.

^a The figures given for rod licences include annual, half-yearly, monthly and weekly licences. Total licence figures for England and Wales do not indicate the precise number of anglers because of duplication. In some areas licences for freshwater fish and eels also permit fishing for non-migratory trout.
^b Foyle Fisheries Commission only.

The total number of rod licences issued in England and Wales in 1956 for salmon, migratory trout, freshwater fish and eels was 719 596. By 1977 this figure had increased by 503 869 to 1 223 465. Equally significantly expenditure on fisheries, largely maintained for recreational angling, increased from £200 887 in 1956 to £3 791 000 in 1977.

Angling is now generally accepted in the U.K. as the major participant outdoor recreation. The National Angling Survey 1970, initiated by the National Anglers' Council and supported by statutory and voluntary agencies, showed that during the year 1969–70 the total number of anglers in England and Wales, aged 12 years of age and over who had fished at least once that year, was 2 790 000. The Survey indicated that there was at least one angler in 10,4% of all households and that 7,1% of all people within the age range had been fishing within the year surveyed.

Expenditure by anglers also confirmed the economic importance of the sport and the gross cost of fishing during 1969–70 was calculated to be between £195 and £250 million. The Survey is to be updated during 1980.

Recognition of angling as a major sport was further shown in 1966 when the Minister for Sport and the Sports Council promoted the establishment of the National Anglers' Council as the responsible body representing the whole of the sport of angling in England and Wales.

Angling in the U.K. enjoys a high reputation as an individualistic pursuit especially attractive to young people but able to be enjoyed by persons of all ages. It requires the development of skills and concentration and stimulates an interest in the biology of the aquatic environment which commends it to those concerned with the teaching of young people. It has considerable therapeutic value and can be undertaken satisfactorily by physically handicapped people.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

Proprietary Authority

Ownership of fisheries in the U.K. is divided between the private and public sectors, the former being concerned with most of the natural rivers and streams and the latter with water supply reservoirs, pumped storage and river regulating reservoirs and drainage channels. Private ownership is far greater than public ownership and most private fisheries are leased to angling clubs and associations or to syndicates with restricted membership.

A proportion of angling clubs own fisheries having secured these by outright purchase when they were offered for sale. Capital grants are available from the Sports Council to assist the purchase of fisheries and during the period 1972–77 capital grants to angling in England amounted to £218 985, most of this being for fisheries purchase and stocking.

Fishery rents vary considerably, reflecting their value in terms of fish stocks and quality. Location is also important as well as access. Demand fluctuates for numerous reasons and the level of rents varies accordingly. Individual anglers may generally obtain access to freshwater fisheries through club membership and many anglers become members of several clubs to obtain access to a variety of fisheries.

Salmon and migratory trout fisheries on the most productive rivers command the highest rents and ultimately the highest individual charge to the angler. These fisheries may be let on a beat system where a stretch of river, known as a beat, is let at a cost which varies according to the time of year and the quality of the fishing. Tenants of beats may also sublet rods or half-rods to recoup their investment. Estates and hotels owning or renting salmon fisheries may issue individual permits or reserve fishing for hotel guests. In Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and south-west England game fishing is an integral and important aspect of tourism.

Coarse fisheries of good quality command high rents and a high capital cost when they are offered for sale, especially natural rivers and streams which form part of a limited resource. Occasionally, several angling clubs may join together to purchase or rent a particularly good fishery. This may be sublet to other clubs who possess no water of their own.

Water supply reservoirs and drainage channels are fisheries in public ownership and have been funded by public money. Although their primary function will not be to provide fishing the general policy within the water industry is to develop recreational facilities on public waters. Drainage channels become established as coarse fisheries and are usually let to local clubs. Public bodies managing reservoirs usually establish put and take trout fisheries, retaining in their own hands the financing and management. Fishing is made available to the general public on day or season ticket at a cost calculated to make the facility entirely or almost entirely self-supporting. Where water authorities are also responsible for land drainage and own fisheries on natural rivers they may manage these themselves or let them to local clubs. The practice varies in different areas.

Local authorities have some involvement in fisheries through country parks. The Countryside Act of 1968 gave local authorities powers to provide country parks and made provision for government grants. By 1976 there were 129 country parks approved for grant aid, of which 54 provided for some form of water-based activity. Of 43 parks surveyed 36 provided fishing facilities.

Legislative Authority

England and Wales

Legal responsibility for the well being of fish stocks in fresh water rests with the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food which promotes the necessary national legislation. Water authorities administer this legislation at regional levels and they are required, under the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act of 1975, to maintain, develop and improve fisheries. Through byelaws issued under the act they regulate the taking of fish. They also have the power to levy rod licences and fisheries contributions. Except in limited cases the latter power has not been exercised so that the bulk of the income arising directly from fisheries is that obtained through rod licences.

The cost of administering the fisheries function varies with the services provided. All water authorities provide full-time fisheries staff with technical experience and, increasingly, with scientific training. Rod licence income from the angler meets part of the cost of this service and the remaining funds are found from other water authority sources, usually the environmental services charge. Although their predecessor river boards and river authorities held the statutory responsibility for fisheries, only the relatively new water authorities have inherited a similar duty for recreation. Strictly defined, angling forms part of the recreational aspect whereas fisheries, by definition, denotes the fish habitat or environment. The difficulty found in drawing a fine line between these two functions has been solved in some water authorities by amalgamating fisheries and angling in the same committee.

The present legislation requires each water authority to establish a regional fishery advisory committee and any such local committees as may be required. These provisions enable the traditional advisory links between anglers and the responsible authority to be continued. All water authorities, therefore, have established fishery advisory committees, either as a separate committee or linked with the recreational function. Beneath the fishery advisory committees are consultative bodies with access to the fishery advisory committees and, through them, to the authority itself. Consultative bodies and the fishery advisory committees usually include representatives of riparian interests, angling clubs and commercial fishing interests.

In England and Wales the recreational angler must obtain a rod licence to fish with a single rod and line. If he fishes at the same time with more than one rod he will require additional licences accordingly. The licence does not give him the right to fish on any particular water as he must obtain permission from the owner or tenant to do this.

The water authority, advised by its fishery advisory committee, may, within the scope of current legislation, promote byelaws regulating the taking of fish, methods used, limits to numbers and minimum sizes, use of nets and other instruments. Byelaws are promoted after consultation with angling interests through the consultative structure. They are also advertised and the ministry may call a public inquiry if there are sufficient objections. Byelaws proposed by water authorities affecting fisheries are subject finally to ministerial approval.

Disease control of freshwater fish in England and Wales is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food under the Diseases of Fish Act of 1937.

Scotland

Rod and line recreational fishing in Scotland contributes in only a minor way towards the total catch of migratory fish. Between 1952 and 1959 it was estimated that, of the total recorded salmon and sea trout catch, rods accounted for only 17%. Net and coble fishing took 43% and fixed engines 40%. The 1977 figures indicate that rod and line catches accounted for 21% of the total catch with nets and fixed engines taking 42% and 36%, respectively. Through almost 20 years the catch proportions have remained remarkably similar.

As mentioned earlier there is no licensing of recreational or commercial fishing in Scotland and the laws currently administered are the Salmon Fisheries (Scotland) Acts of 1862 and 1868 under which a system of district boards was established consisting of representatives of proprietors of salmon fisheries in each district. There are 48 District Boards responsible for the administration and protection of the salmon fisheries in each district, the boards being based on virtually all the important salmon rivers. Where there are no boards the salmon fisheries, which legally include sea trout fisheries, are directly controlled by the owners. The establishment of district boards is not compulsory and depends entirely on the initiative of the owners. They may, when formed by agreement, levy assessments from the proprietors.

The acts referred to above are those mainly in force but the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries (Protection) (Scotland) Act of 1951 revised the law relating to poaching and extended the weekly close time.

Northern Ireland

In Northern Ireland the general management of recreational fishing is shared by the Department of Agriculture and the Fisheries Conservancy Board with the latter carrying out the management of the salmon and inland fisheries. The Conservancy Board issues rod licences which are required for fishing in private or public waters.

The Foyle Catchment area, which is situated in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, is administered by the Foyle Fisheries Commission consisting of representatives of the Department of Agriculture, Northern Ireland and the Department of Fisheries, Dublin. The Commission issues rod licences for anglers fishing in the Foyle area.

Anglers under 16 years of age in the Conservancy Board area who fish exclusively for coarse fish do not require a licence. In the Foyle area a similar waiver operates. In the Conservancy area a game fishing rod licence is valid for both coarse and game fish and the holder of a licence issued in one area may have his licence endorsed for the other area by paying an extra charge.

The best fishing waters in Northern Ireland are in the control of angling clubs or syndicates and are generally reserved for private use. Since 1966 the Department of Agriculture has undertaken an angling development plan to provide reasonable trout fishing facilities for public use. The department does not compete with angling clubs for the acquisition of waters, but acquires suitable coarse fish lakes for development into trout fisheries. There is an abundance of coarse fishing in Northern Ireland which allows this policy to be carried out without competing with the private sector. Resulting from this development there are some 1272 ha of game lakes, 59 km of game river and 15 541 ha of mixed game and coarse lake fishing now available to the public.

There is no right of public fishing on inland waters and fishing rights are normally attached to the soil over which the water lies or flows.

The legislation governing fishing in Northern Ireland is the Fisheries Act (Northern Ireland) 1966 and the Foyle Fisheries Act (Northern Ireland) 1952.

Scotland, England and Wales do have some public rights of fishing. In England and Wales the public has the right to fish in tidal waters but this fishing ceases at the point in the river where ordinary sea tides no longer cause the water to fluctuate both horizontally along the banks and vertically up and down them. In Scotland there is a public right of brown trout fishing in those parts of the river which are both tidal and navigable, but the right must be exercised so as not to interfere with the salmon or sea trout fishing and is limited to where there is a right of access to the water from a boat or from the bank.

Operational Management

As already described the overall responsibility for the welfare of the natural fish stocks rests with the regional water authorities in England and Wales acting under the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act of 1975 with the ultimate responsibility resting with the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. This system, imposed on a largely private ownership of fisheries structure is further complicated by the additional responsibilities devolved to water authorities who now own and operate sewage treatment works and are responsible for water quality control and water supply. On a single mixed fishery a water authority may be licensing abstractions and effluent discharges, carrying out flood protection or drainage works and also maintaining coarse and game fisheries.

The law protecting fisheries from pollution and the byelaws and national legislation affecting fisheries are all administered by the water authority operating through different channels. Fisheries regulations are generally administered through the water bailiffs of the fisheries departments who patrol the banks, check licences and equipment and issue offence reports which may result in prosecutions. Licence evasion is not widespread but is prevented from becoming so only through active bailiffing. In some authorities part-time honorary bailiffs are used, these usually being recommended local anglers. In others, full-time bailiffs are being supplemented by part-time paid bailiffs. Holders of rod licences may themselves ask for the production of a rod licence by another angler and this practice constitutes a check.

On fisheries owned by public bodies, usually water authorities or some other administrative unit within the water industry, management is through recreational staff. Anglers will purchase their tickets to fish either from a fishing hut or ticket dispensers and wardens or bailiffs will check most anglers during the day. At such public fisheries further facilities will be provided including changing rooms, fish gutting room, drink dispensers or restaurant facilities, tackle store and fishing tackle. Toilet facilities will be available around the perimeter of the water and boats are normally provided on the trout waters.

Private Sector Involvement

Private business plays a relatively small part in the provision of fishing facilities in the U.K. because the bulk of fisheries are in the hands of private individuals or angling clubs. Private business involvement may be summarised:

Coarse fisheries: With the exception of one or two companies engaged in mineral extraction which results in the provision of water areas there has been no real private development of coarse fisheries. Throughout the country there are numbers of small fisheries which have been specially developed to attract coarse anglers but these are generally managed by one individual. The overall impact of these private fisheries, even including those run by sand and gravel operators, is minimal when compared with the amount of natural fisheries available. That there is scope for this development in certain areas is dealt with more fully later.

Game fisheries: There has been an increase, as noted earlier, in the number of small stillwaters into which trout have been stocked for recreational fishing. The extent of this development is not fully measured but it has generally followed the increased interest in trout fishing and the availability of trout for stocking purposes which has been in line with fish farm production. In both trout and coarse fishing, private sector involvement has usually been to provide specimen fish of good quality for which the angler is prepared to pay a fairly high price. Hotel salmon and sea trout fishing, usually reserved for guests but sometimes offered to casual visitors, can be included under this heading and is a substantial contribution to private sector involvement in game fishing areas.

Fish farms: Although collectively the fish farming resources of the water authorities are larger than any other group at present, this situation is likely to change as private fish farming develops. Water authority trout hatcheries, including some salmon rearing facilities, are designed primarily to maintain protected supplies of fish for public fisheries where there has been high capital investment. For many years the number of fish farms in the U.K. was limited as most fish were produced for stocking recreational fisheries and not for the table. In 1965 about 100 tons of fish were produced from farms within the U.K. Private investment increased rapidly and by 1970 production had risen to 200 tons. The current level of production is estimated to be 4 000 tons and calculated to reach 20 000 tons by the mid 1980s. The bulk of fish produced will be for the table but the expansion of trout fishing facilities will encourage this growth and ought to ensure that supply will not be outstripped by demand.

Angler Involvement

The angling club is the natural and traditional base for the angler. It provides him with fishing facilities and affords a social outlet. As anglers tend to be highly individualistic they resent organizations that make excessive social demands upon them and club membership is usually divided accordingly. The individuals who wish only to enjoy their fishing join the club simply to obtain access to fishing facilities. The more gregarious anglers enjoy competitive fishing and play an active role in club management.

Whilst the importance of the club is mainly applicable to coarse fishing, it also applies to trout fishing. Because there are variations in angling administration within the U.K. each part is dealt with separately.

England

The total number of freshwater fishing clubs in England is not known but it is estimated to be in excess of 2 000. Most of these will hold water of some kind or have access to water through another angling organization. In coarse fishing this is usually a combination of clubs known loosely as an association. Acting together they can provide sufficient finance to rent or purchase waters which they share often on a rotational basis. The association is the largest unit within angling dealing directly with the provision of fishing facilities for individual anglers. Above association level, anglers are organized nationally rather more for the protection of their waters than for further provision.

In coarse fishing in England the recognized governing body is the National Federation of Anglers which was formed in 1903 to help improve fishery laws, fight pollution, safeguard anglers' rights and privileges and develop common fishing waters and generally look after angling interests. The federation has 358 associations in membership representing 460 000 anglers, of which 320 000 contribute on a per capita basis.

The federation has eight regional organizations each of which nominate representatives to sit on the national executive council which manages the federation. There is an involvement in competitive fishing and the federation organizes national team championships and competitions for women and juveniles. The federation also organizes an English team for the World Angling Championship held annually through the Confederatione de la Pesca Sportive to which it is affiliated.

The equivalent body for game fishing is the Salmon and Trout Association, also formed in 1903 to work for the welfare of game fish, game fisheries and anglers. The association is divided into branches based on water authority regions and is controlled by a council. Total representation through direct and affiliated membership is around 80 000.

Both organizations publish journals, offer a wide range of facilities for members and employ professional administrative staff.

The federation and the association are Foundation Members (with the Worshipful Company of Fishmongers, London, and the National Federation of Sea Anglers) of the National Anglers' Council which is the officially recognized responsible body representing the whole of the sport of angling. It was formed in 1966 to co-ordinate the views of all anglers in any approaches to the government on any matters affecting angling. It deals directly with the Sports Council on behalf of the sport and is recognised by the Sports Council. The anglers' council was further reorganized in 1976 and the duties of all the national angling organizations were re-defined. The national governing bodies act for their own disciplines and the Sports Council acts where at least two disciplines are involved. In practice the Sports Council looks after legislation, government negotiations, E.E.C. negotiations, grant aid, coaching and education and promotion of national facilities. It also administers the British Record (rod-caught) Fish Committee and the Sea Angling Liaison Committee of Great Britain and Ireland. Its total representation, through its national members and directly affiliated organizations is around three quarters of a million anglers. It has a full-time professional staff.

Other national organizations in England include the Anglers' Co-operative Association, formed in 1948 to help anglers in their fight against pollution. The association has a wide membership of clubs and individuals with riparian interests and an excellent record of success in obtaining redress for clubs whose waters have been polluted. The association depends largely on the common law right in England and Wales which is that the reparian owner of land has a natural right to have the water flowing past or through his land in a natural state of purity.

The National Association of Specimen Groups is a specialist organization consisting of groups of anglers whose major interest is in seeking large fish of a particular species. This organization, in common with the National Federation of Anglers and the Salmon and Trout Association, holds an annual or biennial conference where instructional and informative papers are given.

Wales

Organization of national angling administration is similar to that in England except that there is no equivalent coarse fishing organization. In freshwater fishing terms Wales is regarded as a game fishing area although interest in coarse fish is growing. There is a Welsh Fly Fishing Association and a Welsh Anglers' Council recognized by the Sports Council for Wales. It has no full-time staff, but like the National Anglers' Council in England, works through a representative executive committee and sub-committees.

Scotland

National bodies in Scotland include the Scottish Anglers' Association, the Scottish Salmon Angling Federation and the Scottish National Angling Clubs Association. There is no Scottish anglers' council nor any national body for coarse fishing.

The national governing bodies in England do have membership in Wales and Scotland so there is some overlap with Welsh and Scottish based organizations. The Salmon and Trout Association has branches in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland and the National Federation of Anglers has members in Wales.

Fisheries Management, Co-ordination Arrangements

Fisheries management in Scotland is based upon the work of the district boards and, on the rivers where boards are not organized, the work of the individual riparian owners. Other riparian owners include the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland, the Forestry Commission and the Central Electricity Generating Board. These bodies employ management and research staff.

Special arrangements are made for those rivers which border both England and Scotland. The River Tweed is looked after by the Tweed Commissioners, consisting of proprietors of salmon fishing over a certain value. The Solway fisheries do not have a unified administration being looked after by the adjacent water authority on the English side and by various district boards in Scotland. The Border Esk is regarded as an English river.

Scottish salmon fishing laws are substantially different from those in England and Wales, especially in regard to the right to and ownership of salmon fishings, and the law affecting salmon fishing in the sea. Consequently local administration is markedly different and fisheries management of the rivers is very localized.

In England and Wales, although the statutory fisheries function to maintain, improve and develop fisheries is laid on regional water authorities, no further legal interpretation is given. Management action therefore depends largely on the attitude of the individual water authorities whose major role, and that of their predecessors, has been protective so far as natural waters are concerned. The authorities have a clear task to implement statute law and fishery byelaws regulating the taking of fish, closed seasons, minimum sizes, methods of fishing, etc., but to what extent they are able to manage fisheries so that they are improved and developed has not really become clear in the 5 years since that mandate was given to them.

In practical terms water authorities have a duty for the well being of all fisheries whether privately owned or in public ownership. The law permits them only to develop the recreational angling aspect of waters over which they have control or waters on which they are invited by the owner. Their recreational management powers are therefore considerably limited. Those authorities with reservoirs may develop them as recreational fisheries and manage them accordingly but they cannot impose management solutions on privately owned fisheries.

In the past the view has been taken that provided the natural rivers were protected the fisheries in them would flourish and the recreational aspect would benefit accordingly. This attitude amounted to a commitment to maintain the rivers rather than develop or improve them. In game fisheries it was possible to promote improvement by protecting spawning areas in the headwaters and establishing fish passes so that migration upstream and downstream was not hindered. Water authorities with game fisheries continue to operate this type of management. In predominantly coarse fishing areas the problems are different and the management approach varies accordingly.

Management of coarse fisheries is very much a matter of protection of the river from pollution and abstraction problems. Management policies are drawn up by the regional fisheries advisory committee on the advice of technical officers and approved by the water authority. In many coarse fishing areas where there are many pressures on rivers initial management consists of obtaining as much reliable information as possible on existing fish stocks and population structures. As the clubs and riparian owners affected are involved at the advisory committee level a concensus can usually be taken on fishery management action.

Enclosed waters within a water authority area, whilst subject to statute and byelaw regulations, are not included in fishery management proposals generally although the owners may seek advice on management problems from fishery department staff.

RECREATIONAL FISHERY PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Fishery Supply

The U.K. is fairly well endowed with rivers, lakes and streams. There are also a number of water supply reservoirs which offer recreational fishing and future reservoirs will add to recreational fishing facilities.

It is possible, however, to identify a shortage of fishing space in urban areas and this problem is more acute in industrial areas where pollution has affected the natural waters where anglers would normally fish. Local authorities in the U.K. are empowered to spend part of their rate income for the provision of sporting facilities. Because in many areas angling appears to be well catered for by natural waters and manmade waters, little or no urban angling development has occurred. Local authorities have tended to concentrate on the provision of facilities for more athletic recreations and have neglected angling.

In industrial areas where natural waters are polluted, anglers have traditionally turned to the countryside for fishing facilities. Sheffield fishermen, for example, have for many years journied to Lincolnshire because there is an acute shortage of urban fishing facilities near the city. With the exception of some city center parks where limited fishing is permitted, there is little urban fishing provision although the demand is considerable. Provision of small fishing pools, similar to those provided in other countries such as, for example, Amsterdam, would relieve pressure on rural waters and reduce fishing costs for urban anglers. In conjunction with the National Angling Coaching Scheme courses of instruction for young people could be held.

Fisheries Demand

The need for fisheries in urban areas is outlined above but pressure may not be forthcoming locally because anglers have traditionally accepted the need to travel for their fishing. It is clear, however, that provision of facilities generates new participants in angling, as in other recreations. Rutland Water (1 254 ha) is the largest man-made reservoir in the U.K. It opened to trout fishermen in 1976 and during 1979 more than 33 000 day permits were sold. Demand for fishing on other local trout reservoirs has not diminished to any great extent indicating that the new facility has generated additional participants.

The demand for good quality game fishing, especially for migratory fish, remains high and numbers of anglers who reside in non-game fishing areas travel regularly to Scotland and Wales to enjoy salmon fishing, the cost of which continues to rise. To a large extent the provision of stillwater trout fishing has met the demand for game fishing in areas where there are no game fish rivers. There are also indications that in coarse fishing areas where the quality of the fishing has deteriorated in recent years a proportion of coarse fishermen have turned to stillwater trout fishing as an alternative.

Fisheries Management Problems

Game Fisheries

Management of migratory fish rivers depends upon a number of factors, not all of which are in the control of the managing authority. Spawning sites must be preserved, nursery areas must be able to offer food for growing fish, passage upstream and downstream must be maintained if the policy is to encourage natural stock production. Stocking of fry or ova may be carried out to supplement natural reproduction but most management authorities regard the protection of adult breeding stock as the prime requirement.

The problem of adult fish protection embraces two areas: poaching in the river itself which is a considerable local problem and requires extensive manpower to control, and adult fish losses outside the river through estuarial netting and netting in the sea. It is therefore essential that the managing authority, usually the water authority, has the power to protect its fish stocks as far as possible within national territorial limits. This may not be considered fishery management in the scientific sense but it is an essential requirement if game fish rivers are to be maintained, improved and developed. This form of protection can only be obtained through legislation.

Game fish problems which are within the powers of the water authority to solve include problems of water quality and abstraction which may affect flows. These are the vital problems which affect coarse fisheries management also.

Coarse Fisheries

Fishery management for recreational coarse fishing involves maximizing the recreational potential of a coarse fish stock so that it is available to provide sport at an acceptable level over a number of years. Where a coarse fish stock is naturally replenishing itself and fishing pressure is low this target is attainable, provided that water quality is good, spawning facilities are available and water flow is maintained. Spawning achievement by the basic fish population must be sufficient to provide new progeny each year. If there is a poor spawning year the result could be a lost year class which will result in a gap in the population structure and a loss of sport for the angler. Several poor spawnings in consecutive years could alter the population structure entirely and produce poor fishing for a long period.

The coarse fishery manager must have some knowledge of the state of the fish stocks under his control and be aware as soon as possible that there is a lost or diminished year class so that he can anticipate the difficulty before it emerges when sport becomes poor. He may wish to take remedial action by restocking in advance of a poor season or take some other management steps.

There is, therefore, a real need for basic research into the management of coarse fish stocks for recreational use and research into the factors which may affect natural populations, including the effect of angling. Although the managers of put and take trout fisheries can keep accurate records of stockings and catches, and counts of adult fish can be made on migratory fish rivers, it is extremely difficult on coarse fish waters to check population sizes and composition. The wide, deep coarse fish rivers make sampling difficult, and there is need for some research into improved sampling techniques, for without stock information no worthwhile coarse fishery management can be undertaken.

Of all the factors affecting coarse fish stocks there is no doubt that water quality is overriding. Coarse fish may be able to withstand less pure waters than those required by game fish, but gradual deterioration of river water quality can reduce fish stocks to an unacceptable level. Unfortunately, water quality improvement is directly related to capital expenditure by water authorities on treatment works needed to cope with the heavy demands created by housing and industry. Between the years 1950 and 1970 there was a 3% improvement in the length of rivers in England and Wales classified as unpolluted (chemical classification). This was related to increased expenditure within the water industry, but by 1978 capital expenditure by water authorities was the lowest in real terms since the late 1960s. The National Water Council has advised the U.K. Government that if the gradual improvement in the water environment is to be maintained the level of expenditure needs to rise. Long term consequences for freshwater fisheries in natural rivers and streams could be disastrous if funding for pollution control is diminished.

The most appropriate quotation to emphasize at this point is that comment by the Director General of the National Water Council at a London conference in 1979, “For England and Wales problems of water quality are now more difficult and more demanding than those of quantity.”

ORGANIZATIONS AND AGENCIES INVOLVED

Statutory National

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (responsibility for fisheries)

Department of Agriculture, Scotland

Department of Agriculture, Northern Ireland

Fisheries Conservancy Board, Northern Ireland

The Welsh Office

Department of the Environment (responsibility for recreation)

The Sports Council (responsible for the promotion and development of sport)

National Water Council (advises on the national policy for water)

Water Space Amenity Commission (advises on use of water space)

British Waterways Board (responsible for canals and inland waterways)

Inland Waterways Amenity Advisory Council (advise BWB on recreation)

British Tourist Board

The Countryside Commission

Voluntary National

National Anglers' Council (representing the whole of the sport of angling)

National Federation of Anglers (coarse fishing)

Salmon and Trout Association (game fishing)

Anglers' Co-operative Association

National Association of Specimen Groups

British Field Sports Society

Institute of Fisheries Management (professional organization for fisheries management)

Welsh Anglers' Council

Welsh Fly Fishing Association

Scottish Anglers' Association

Scottish Salmon Angling Association

Scottish National Angling Clubs' Association

Regional Statutory

Anglian Water Authority

Northumbrian Water Authority

North West Water Authority

Severn-Trent Water Authority

South West Water Authority

Southern Water Authority

Thames Water Authority

Welsh Water Authority

Wessex Water Authority

Yorkshire Water Authority

Northern Sports Council for Sport and Recreation

North West Council for Sport and Recreation

Yorkshire & Hunberside Council for Sport and Recreation

East Midland Regional Council for Sport and Recreation

West Midlands Council for Sport and Recreation

Eastern Council for Sport and Recreation

Greater London and South East Council for Sport and Recreation

DEFINITIONS

Angling—Taking a fish on a hook, using rod and line

Commercial fishing—Taking of fish other than by rod and line

Coarse fish—Freshwater fish other than salmonids

Game fish—Salmonids (salmon, trout, sea trout), grayling and char are usually not regarded as game fish

Freshwater fish—The legal term for fish other than salmon, trout and eels

REFERENCE SOURCES AND PUBLICATIONS

National Angling Survey 1970 (National Opinion Polls)

Report of Committee on Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries 1961 (HMSO)

Scottish Salmon and Trout Fisheries, 1963 (HMSO)

Scottish Salmon and Trout Fisheries (Second Report) 1963 (HMSO)

Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries in Scotland, 1971 (HMSO)

Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act, 1975 (HMSO)

Water Act, 1973 (HMSO)

Fisheries Act (Northern Ireland) 1966 (HMSO)

Foyle Fisheries Act (Northern Ireland) 1952 (HMSO)

Anglers and Angling Survey 1969 (Associated Industrial Consultants)

Recreational Freshwater Fisheries Symposium Proceedings 1978 (Water Research Centre)

Amenity Use of Reservoirs Survey 1969 (British Waterworks Association)

Recreational Use of Water Supply Reservoirs in England and Wales 1974 (WSAC)

Water Recreation in Country Parks 1974 (WSAC)

Study of Coastal and Inland Waters in England and Wales 1970 (Sports Council)

National Water Council Annual Report 1978/9 “Water” Magazine, National Water Council, November 1979

“Towards a Strategy for Fish Farming in the UK”. (Food Policy, Aug. 1979)

“Is your fishery a good buy?” T.C.H. King, Feb. 1979 (Trout Fisherman magazine)

Angling and the Law (Charles Knight publishers)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA COUNTRY REVIEW

Robert F. Hutton

Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C. 20235 USA

Paul L. Hooper

Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 20240 USA

Richard H. Stroud

Sport Fishing Institute, 608 13th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005 USA

INTRODUCTION

Large numbers of U.S. citizens have turned to recreational fishing for relaxation and food since early colonial times. Most charters of the 13 Original Colonies granted the settlers the privilege to fish and hunt freely on lands of each colony held in common and not deeded to private ownership. This has been a jealously guarded privilege of U.S. citizens ever since.

Today recreational and commercial fishing in the U.S. make substantial contributions to the national economy, food supply, and to the health, recreation, and well-being of its citizens. These fishery resources are a renewable form of national wealth capable of being maintained and greatly enhanced with proper management, but equally capable of destruction if neglected or unwisely exploited.

For the most part, the states have the responsibility and authority for managing freshwater and coastal fishery resources within their jurisdictions; namely, to the outer edge of the Territorial Sea. The federal government assists the states in the conservation and management by acquiring new knowledge through research, developing new technology, and assisting or supplementing management efforts where a combined approach is needed to promote long-term well-being of the resources.

The Fishery Conservation and Management Act (FCMA) of 1976 (Public Law 94–265) extended U.S. fishery jurisdiction to 200 nautical miles (370 km) from the Territorial Sea baseline. Under the FCMA, 8 regional fishery management councils (the Councils), in conjunction with the states and the federal government, were authorized to manage marine fisheries primarily within the 3–200 mile (5,5–370 km) fishery conservation zone.

DESCRIPTION OF THE RESOURCE AND THE ROLE OF THE RECREATIONAL FISHERIES

In 1979, the total area of the U.S. (land and water area including the Territorial Sea) was about 950 million ha with a population of approximately 220,2 million people. The length of marine coastline was about 20 000 km with a tidal shoreline of 143 000 km. Approximately 700 million ha were included in the zone. The total length of major rivers and canals, 1,6 km (one statute mile) or greater in length, was about 5,2 million km with the total area of fresh water being about 34 million ha.

Collectively, inland fresh waters of the U.S. comprise 34,2 million ha. South of Alaska, where over 99% of U.S. anglers reside and fish, 29,1 million ha are available. About 15,7 million ha represent American Great Lakes waters. Approximately 13,5 million ha represent other waters in the contiguous states. Only 3,7% of inland waters are private; therefore, inland recreational fishing is almost entirely dependent upon the productivity of publicly owned waters.

Saltwater fishing is carried out exclusively on public waters. Due to private ownership of much coastline to the high-water mark, access to salt water may be difficult in densely-populated coastal regions. South of Alaska, the coastal bays, sounds, and tidal reaches of river mouths (the estuaries) comprise 6,2 million ha. Adding the ocean water occurring between the general coastal line (8 000 km) and the outer limit of the Territorial Sea (3 nautical miles; 5,5 km), about 4,5 million ha, the area of coastal water subject to intensive fishing by marine anglers amounts to 10,7 million ha. Heavily fished marine waters also include the 9-mile-wide (16,6 km) contiguous fishery zone, extending to 12 nautical miles (22,2 km) offshore, accounting for an additional 13,4 million ha. In sum, approximately 24,1 million ha of coastal marine waters are readily available to the more than 99% of saltwater anglers who reside in the 48 contiguous states. Less readily accessible, and far less heavily fished, are the remaining waters between 22,2–370 km offshore.

Widespread private ownership of reliable small boats and motors, plus expanded fleets of modern head boats (partyboats or commercial passenger fishing vessels) and charter craft, have transformed all these waters into popular recreational fishing grounds. Many of these boats frequently travel 90–200 km offshore, often much farther, seeking the larger-size bottom fish and the wide-ranging big-game pelagic species (tunas, billfishes, and sharks).

Data from four quinquennial national surveys reveal over 59% increase in habitual anglers over the 15-year period, 1955–1970. The long-term annual rate of growth has averaged 3,15% (compounded), nearly twice the population growth. Freshwater anglers increased in close correspondence, at an average annual rate of 3,18%. Saltwater anglers increased over 107%, equivalent to 5,0% annual average growth rate.

Paid licensed saltwater and freshwater anglers in the U.S. during 1978 totaled 26 150 352 with 32 797 681 licenses, tags, permits, and stamps being issued. During that same year it is estimated that approximately 60 million U.S. anglers fished at least one time. The difference between the number of paid license holders and number of anglers can be attributed to (1) most states do not require a license for children under a certain age or for senior citizens over a certain age and (2) a sizeable number of people fish illegally without a license. While all 50 states, Guam, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and American Samoa require a freshwater recreational fishing license, only one state (California) requires a separate saltwater license. Seven states (Alabama, Alaska, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oregon, Texas, and Washington) require either a stamp or permit to fish for certain saltwater species, or have a combined freshwater-saltwater recreational fishing license or require nonresidents to buy a saltwater license.

The number of U.S. recreational fishermen was estimated in the 1975 National Survey of Hunting, Fishing, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation, sponsored by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. According to this survey over 53,9 million anglers, at least 9 years old, participated in more than 1,3 billion days of fishing and spent $15,2 billion for fishing activities. Although not included in the 1975 National Survey, we estimated that the 53,9 million anglers caught an estimated 847,8 million kg of fish worth approximately $2,5 billion as food in 1975.

There are many values to society from the use of fish resources for recreational purposes. They include the consumption of large quantities of fresh-caught wholesome fish as important nutritional contributions to subsistence. The market value of the angling activity is substantial in terms of the dollar volume of business generated through retail purchase of related goods and services (Table 1). Added to this is the great value of the opportunity-cost of time invested, when potential income is foregone to permit angling participation. Finally, the therapeutic or psychosomatic health value is evidently enormous if not readily quantifiable.

Most species of marine finfish in U.S. waters are now harvested by both recreational and commercial fishermen. Also, the U.S. Department of Commerce has estimated that since 1970 recreational fishermen catch annually nearly one-half of the U.S. total harvest of edible finfish. Per capita consumption of recreationally caught finfish and shellfish during this period is estimated to have been between 1,36 and 1,81 kg (edible meat) annually. Table 2 shows estimated U.S. per capita consumption of fish and shellfish for 1978.

In 1977, a report on the economic activity associated with marine recreational fishing was prepared for the National Marine Fisheries Service by Centaur Management Consultants, Inc. Included in the results of this study were the following statements:

In 1975 consumers purchased an estimated $1 840 million worth of goods and services at the retail level which are associated with marine recreational fishing. These sales generated approximately $699 million of value added, $343 million of wages and salaries, 50 580 person-years of employment, and $52,8 million of capital expenditures in these directly-impacted business sectors.

The U.S. commercial fishing industry consists of four interrelated activities: harvesting, processing, transportation, and distributing/marketing. In 1978, commercial landings of edible species were 1,45 billion kg valued at $1,7 billion and commercial landings at U.S. ports of fish used for reduction purposes were 1,3 billion kg valued at $121 million. More than 168 000 people were employed in the harvesting sector of the industry during 1978 while the processing sector employed about 92 000 people.

Table 1. Highlights of angling participation and expenditures (in thousands). (Extracted from the 1975 National Survey of Hunting, Fishing and Wildlife Associated Recreation.)

^a No. anglers not additive (fished in more than one category)—9 years old and older.
^b Total number of freshwater anglers is based on assumption that 88.55% of the total number of anglers fished in fresh water as reported in the 1970 survey.
^c Includes $232 431 000 not assignable by type of fishing.

Historically, in the U.S., emphasis by both federal and state governments has been placed on recreational fishing in inland waters while commercial fishing has received the greater consideration in marine waters. During the 1970's, several studies brought to light significant biological, economic, and social values of recreational fishing. The U.S. Congress also now recognizes that the ecological, economic, and social values of recreational fishing must be taken into consideration if fisheries are to be managed in the best interest of all the citizens of the U.S.

The FCMA makes it clear, as a matter of national policy with respect to the marine fisheries, that domestic fishing needs will receive preferential consideration over foreign fishing activities within the U.S. 200-mile (370 km) zone. Under the FCMA, the Councils are established and charged with the development of fishery management plans for fish stocks other than highly migratory species of tunas. Provisions require that the plans must be formulated on the basis of optimum yield, defined as “maximum sustainable yield as modified by any relevant economic, social, or ecological factor.” In this context “optimum” means, further, “the amount of fish which will provide the greatest overall benefit to the Nation with particular reference to food production and recreational opportunities.”

The determination of optimum yield and allocation to the various user groups is not possible without basic information on the total catch attributable to both the recreational and the commercial fishery.

Table 2. U.S. per capita consumption of fish and shellfish, 1978 (partly estimated).

^a Based on estimated marine and freshwater catch by recreational fishermen.

Appendix I contains a list of major U.S. legislative authorities involving recreational fishing.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

Management of freshwater and coastal fisheries out to the outer limits of the Territorial Sea, is primarily the responsibility of the states. The management of marine fisheries within the fishery conservation zone is the responsibility of the Councils in conjunction with the National Marine Fisheries Service.

The states and territories hold fish and resident wildlife as a heritage resource in trust for the public and exercise jurisdictional responsibilities to manage, control, and regulate these natural resources, including their capturing, taking, possession, and other uses within state boundaries. The Congress of the U.S. has authorized and directed to various federal agencies certain responsibilities for the conservation and management of migratory animals, threatened and endangered species, marine mammals and their habitats. International treaties and conventions are means for addressing multi-national fish and wildlife resources management problems. Under powers specified in the Constitution, the authorization for entering into any such agreements is reserved exclusively for the federal government.

The FCMA extended U.S. fishery jurisdiction to 200 miles (370 km) offshore, although highly migratory species of tuna were excluded.

PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES

The existing fish resource base in the U.S. has the potential, given nationwide pollution abatement, habitat protection, and extensive fish management, to accommodate substantial new angling participation.

Public demand for quality fishing waters and facilities has more than doubled during the past 20 years. Because of this greatly increased demand and rapidly rising inflation, state and federal governments have not been able to fund needed recreational fishery research, management, and development programs. It has been estimated that it would take at least $80 million (U.S. 1980 dollars) annually, in addition to present funding, for the state and federal governments to sustain present recreational fishing programs. Each of the 50 states obtains some revenue from a freshwater recreational fishing license, but only eight of the 24 coastal states benefit from any type of saltwater recreational fishing license, stamp, or permit. A license covering all types of marine recreational fishing has not been, and continues not to be, politically acceptable by most coastal states. However, there is increasing support for such a license. A nationwide marine recreational fishing license has not been considered by the U.S. Congress. In 1950, the Federal Aid in Fish Restoration Act was passed by the U.S. Congress. This Act was designed to help the states solve their recreational fishing problems. Under this legislation, funds are derived from a 10% manufacturer's excise tax on fishing rods, creels, reels, and artificial lures, baits, and flies. Apportionment of funds derived from this tax is made to the states according to a formula based on geographical area and number of sport fishing licenses issued. To participate, a state must have fishery conservation laws, including a prohibition against the use of license fees paid by fishermen for any purpose other than the administration of that state's fish and game department. During 1980, bills were introduced in both Houses of the U.S. Congress to amend the current legislation. If adopted, it is estimated that the proposed amendments would increase present federal funding to the states for fisheries work from about $25 million to more than $100 million.

Competing uses for the fish, the aquatic environment (water), or for the bottom materials are the chief sources of potential conflicts affecting recreational fishing. In fresh water, competition for the fish has been largely resolved; commercial fishing is usually permitted for those species and in those locations where there is little or no interference with the recreational fisheries. A few marine species have been legally reserved by some states for recreational fishing (e.g., striped bass in California and snook in Florida).

It is abundantly clear that the effects of unrelated external factors impinging upon both the living and environmental aquatic resources, exceed by many fold those generated by angling participation.

Encroachment of residential, commercial, or industrial development upon vital spawning habitat is often serious. Discharge of all kinds of wastes into fishing water and removal of essential materials by draglining, dredging, or bulldozing of critical habitat cause direct, often bitter conflicts.

In coastal marine waters, the chief source of possible conflicts between angling and other resource uses appears to derive from pollution of the sea by toxic wastes and, near shore, by discharge of waste thermal cooling water from power plants. Commercial fishing by foreign nationals, as well as by U.S. entities, competes directly for a number of species.

Development activities by man frequently cause severe reduction or modification of the fish resource base, occasionally complete destruction of some part.

Perhaps the most sinister and damaging of all impacts by the recreational fishermen is the too-frequent, unwitting release of live unused contents of “minnow” buckets into fishing waters, as well as the occasional deliberate transplanting of selected species. These two types of fish stocking are quite illegal in every state for very good reason. More serious environmental and population disruption may have resulted from these ill-advised activities than from any others by recreational fishermen.

Concentrated angling may have dramatic influence on fish population structure when directed at the carnivorous predator-fish species at the tops of the fish community pyramids. There is no scientific evidence of such effects, as yet, from angling on corresponding saltwater species.

On the other hand, recreational fishermen have, constructively, done more than any other category of Americans to generate awareness of the need for nationwide water pollution control. It was they who persuaded the U.S. Congress to pass the first Federal Water Pollution Control Act in the mid-1930's. It was an alliance of angling and conservation organizations that spearheaded the successful effort to create the current multi-billion dollar water pollution control program. Without it, all fishing was eventually threatened, as was modern American civilization. Equally so, they will continue to assert their influence against any factors negatively impacting the fishery resource and its environment. This is not an emotional reaction, but a true concern for sound fishery management and protection of the resources.

KEY AGENCIES AND ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN THE RECREATIONAL FISHERIES

Several agencies in the federal government have responsibilities that bear directly on recreational and commercial fishing. The National Marine Fisheries Service is responsible for conducting a program of management, research, and services for the protection of living marine resources for their aesthetic, economic, and recreational value to the people of the U.S. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is concerned with preserving and maintaining the habitat, acquiring and managing public lands, national parks, and wildlife refuges. Many of these activities are directly concerned with providing better opportunities for recreational fishing.

Each state and territory holds fish and resident wildlife in public trust and exercises exclusive jurisdictional responsibilities, with certain exceptions (i.e., marine mammals and endangered species), to manage, control, and regulate these natural resources, including their capture, possession, and other uses within its boundaries.

Among the most important private organizations involved in the recreational fisheries in the U.S. are the Sport Fishing Institute, the International Game Fish Association, the National Coalition for Marine Resources, and the Izaak Walton League of America. Table 3 is a list of major organizations headquartered in the U.S. that are primarily concerned with or have a major interest in recreational fisheries.

In the U.S. there are thousands of governmental and private organizations involved in recreational fisheries. These are far too numerous to list here. The 1980 Conservation Directory of the National Wildlife Federation contains approximately 1 700 organizations and more than 11 000 individuals in the U.S. and Canada concerned with natural resource use and management. Membership in most private conservation organizations is open and a membership fee is usually charged.

Table 3. Major organizations involved in the recreational fisheries.

DEFINITIONS

Definitions listed in this section are not necessarily legal definitions throughout the U.S.

Anadromous species—Species of fish which spawn in fresh or estuarine waters and which migrate to salt water.

Angler—A person who fishes with a hand-held hook and line or rod and reel for recreation, hobby, sport, or home consumption.

Commercial fisherman—An individual who derives a major share of his income from catching and selling living resources taken from inland or marine waters.

Fee-fishing—A fee charged for the privilege of fishing on private water areas—usually does not include additional charges for bait, fish caught, food, etc.

Fishery Conservation Zone—The FCMA defines this zone as contiguous to the territorial sea of the U.S. and extending seaward 200 nautical miles (370 km) measured from the baseline from which the territorial sea is measured.

Fisherman day—Any part of a single day a person spends fishing.

Fishing effort—The activity of catching or harvesting fish, usually measured as a combination of type and the amount of gear and time used while fishing.

Fishery resources—Fish, shellfish, and other forms of aquatic plant or animal life.

Fish management—Attempts by man to influence the supply of fish by modifying the environment, by the stocking of fish or other manipulation of fish populations, or by regulation of fishermen.

Full-time commercial fisherman—An individual who spends 50% or more of the working year in commercial fishing activities, including port activity, such as vessel repair, and re-rigging.

Game fish—Species, under the laws of the states, that are reserved for taking by sport fishing methods. The status of a species as a game fish may vary among states and in different waters within a state.

Maximum sustainable yield—The largest annual catch or yield in terms of weight of fish caught by both commercial and recreational fishermen that can be taken continuously from a stock under existing environmental conditions. A determination of MSY, which should be an estimate based upon the best scientific information available, is a biological measure necessary in the development of optimum yield.

Multiple-use—The use of a water area other than just for a single purpose. Could include fishing, water skiing, swimming, skin diving, etc. Management attempts to coordinate these uses with little conflict among participants.

Optimum yield—The amount of fish that will provide the greatest overall benefit to the nation, particularly for food production and recreation, and that is determined on the basis of the maximum sustainable yield, modified by relevant economic, social, or ecological factors.

Overfishing—Harvesting more fish or shellfish than the sustainable yield, either maximum or optimum.

Recreational fisherman—One who fishes primarily for recreation or home consumption, including anglers; also, includes those who sell all or part of the catch provided the monetary returns constitute an insignificant part of the person's income.

Tailwater fishing—Fishing in river or stream channels below dams into which impounded waters are spilled or released.

Territorial Sea—A zone extending 3 nautical miles (5,5 km) from shore for all states except Texas and the Gulf Coast of Florida where the seaward boundary is 3 marine leagues (9 nautical miles; 16,6 km).

INFORMATION SOURCES AND PUBLICATIONS

Alperin, I.M., C.H. Lyles and J.P. Harville. 1977 Eastland fisheries survey (a report to the Congress). Washington, D.C. Atlantic States Mar. Fish. Comm., Gulf States Mar. Fish. Comm., and Pacific Mar. Fish. Comm., Nat'l. Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin. Grant No. 04-5-158-68, 91 pp.

Alverson, D.L. 1976 Stock assessment in the management of marine recreational fisheries, pages 109–122 in R.H. Stroud and H. Clepper (eds.), First Annu. Mar. Recreational Fish. Symp. Fish. Symp. Washington, D.C., Sport Fishing Institute.

Anonymous. 1961 Health and safety tips (boating and fishing) from the American Medical Association. News Release (May 29), Chicago, Ill., The Am. Med. Assoc.

Anonymous. 1975 A compilation of federal laws relating to conservation and development of our nation's fish and wildlife resources, environmental quality, and oceanography. Washington, D.C., U.S. Gov't. Printing Office, 844 pp.

Anonymous. 1977 Economic activities associated with marine recreational fisheries. Washington, D.C., Centaur Management Consultants, Inc., NOAA Contract No. 6-35105, 206 pp.

Anonymous. 1978 Extended fishery jurisdiction: problems and progress, 1977. Raleigh, N.C., Proceedings of the North Carolina Governor's Conference on Fishery Management under Extended Jurisdiction, 246 pp.

Bell, F.W. 1979 Recreational versus commercial fishing in Florida: an economic impact analysis. Tallahassee, Florida, Florida State University, 30 pp. (mimeo).

Bryan, R.C. 1974 The dimensions of a saltwater sport fishing trip or what do people look for in a fishing trip besides fish? Environment Canada, Tech. Rep. Series No. PAC/T-74-1.

Bryan, R.C. 1976 The sociology of fishing: a review and critique, pages 83–92 in R.H. Stroud and H. Clepper (eds.), First Annu. Mar. Recreational Fish. Symp., Washington, D.C., Sport Fishing Institute.

Burrows, C. 1975 The amazing impact of Minnesota fishing. The Minnesota Volunteer, 38(220): 2–7.

Carlton, F.E. 1975 Recreational fishing interests—conflicts and cooperation, pages 72–81, in To stem the tide, Lexington, Kentucky, Council of State Governments.

Clark, J.R. 1962 The 1960 saltwater angling survey. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 153:1–36.

Clawson, M. 1959 Methods of measuring the demand for and value of outdoor recreation. Washington, D.C., Resources for the Future, Inc.

Cooper, G.P., D.S. Shetter and D.W. Hayne. 1959 Results of studies of Michigan trout waters with species angling restrictions (type of lures, size limit, creel limit), 1949–1959. Ann Arbor, Mich., Mich. Inst. Fish. Res. Rept. 1577, 53 pp. (Mimeo).

Crutchfield, J.A. 1975 An economic view of optimum sustainable yield, pages 13–19 in P.M. Roedel (ed.). Optimum sustainable yield as a concept in fisheries management, Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 9.

Deuel, D.G. 1973 1970 saltwater angling survey. U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, Current Fisheries Statistics, No. 6200, 54 pp.

Deuel, D.G. and R. Clark. 1968 The 1965 saltwater angling survey. Washington, D.C., U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Publication 67, 51 pp.

Ditton, R.B. In press Obsolete petroleum platforms as artificial reef material. Paper presented at Artificial Reefs Conf., Daytona Beach, Florida, Sept. 13–15, 1979.

Ditton, R.B. In press Social and economic considerations for artificial reef deployment and management. Paper presented at Artificial Reefs Conf., Daytona Beach, Florida, Sept. 13–14, 1979.

Ditton, R.B., et al. 1979 Access to and usage of offshore liberty ship reefs in Texas. Mar. Fish. Rev., 41(9): 25–31.

Dunning, D.J. 1978 Participation of nonlicensed anglers in recreational fisheries, Erie County, New York. Trans. Am. Fish Soc., 107(5): 678–681.

Edmonds, W.S. 1979 The development of methodologies to collect socioeconomic information regarding marine recreational fishing. Washington, D.C., Human Sciences Research, Inc., prepared for the National Marine Fisheries Service under Contract No. 03-78-MO273, 132 pp.

Ferress, A.L., et al. 1962 National recreational survey. Washington, D.C. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, Study Report 19, U.S. Gov't Printing Office. 391 pp.

Fraser, M.B., et al. 1977 Survey of commercial sportfishing boats in the coastal United States. Corvallis, Oregon, Oregon State University Sea Grant College Program, Publ. No. ORESU-T-77-009, Corvallis, Oregon, 28 pp.

Gordon, D., et al. 1973 Economic evaluation of sport fisheries—what do they mean? Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 102(2): 293–311.

Gordon, W.G. In press Management of living marine resources—challenges of the future. Presented at Conference on Comparative Marine Policy, Univ. of Rhode Island, June 19, 1979.

Graefe, A.R. 1979 Social and economic data needs for reef program assessment. Paper presented at Artificial Reefs Conf., Daytona Beach, Florida, Sept. 13–15, 1979.

Harville, J.P. 1975 Multidisciplinary aspects of optimum sustainable yield, pages 51–64 in P.M. Roedel (ed.). Optimum sustainable yield as a concept in fisheries management, Am. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 9.

Holbrook, J.A., 1975 II. Bass fishing tournaments, pages 408–415 in R.H. Stroud and H. Clepper (eds.). Black bass biology and management, Washington, D.C., Sport Fishing Institute.

Hoover, H. 1963 Fishing for fun and to wash your soul. William Nichols (ed.), New York, Random House. 86 pp.

Horvath, J.C. 1974 Southeastern economic survey of wildlife recreation, (executive summary). Atlanta, Georgia, Environmental Research Corporation, Georgia State University, 68 pp.

Johansen, P.L. and R.J. Kemp. 1979 Why a marine recreational fishing license: the Government view, pro and con, pages 113–117 in R.H. Stroud and H. Clepper (eds.), Fourth Annu. Mar. Recreational Fish. Symp., Washington, D.C., Sport Fishing Institute.

Knight, G. In press Legal aspects of state, interstate, and federal marine fisheries jurisdiction. Presented at Conf. on State and Interstate Fishery Jurisdiction and Management, Raleigh, N.C., Oct. 29–31.

Martin, R.G. 1974 Some basics of fish management. Fishing Tackle News, 22(3).

Massmann, W.H. 1976 25 years of federal-state cooperation for improving sport fishing. Washington, D.C., Dept., of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 38 pp.

McConnell, K.E. and V.J. Norton. 1976 An economic evaluation of marine recreational fishing, pages 12–28 in R.H. Stoud and H. Clepper (eds.), First Annu. Mar. Recreational Fish. Symp., Washington, D.C., Sport Fishing Institute.

McHugh, J.L. In press Progress and problems in implementing the Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976. Trans. No. Am. Wildl. and Nat. Resour. Conf., 45.

Meyer, P.A. 1976 Recreational policy resource evaluation for decision making, pages 192–199 in S.H. Anderson (ed.). Recreational marine promise, proceedings, discussions, and overview of the National Conference on Marine Recreation, Washington, D.C., NOAA, USC-SG3-76.

Moeller, G.H. and J.H. Engelken. 1972 What fishermen look for in a fishing experience. J. Wildl. Manage., 36(4): 1253–1257.

Radovich, J. 1975 Application of optimum sustainable yield theory to marine fisheries, pages 21–28 in P.M. Roedel (ed.). Optimum sustainable yield as a concept in fisheries management, Am. Fish. Soc., Spec. Publ. 9.

Roedel, P.M. (ed.) 1975 Symposium on optimum sustainable yield as a concept in fisheries management. Am. Fish. Soc., Spec. Publ. 9.89 pp.

Scogin, W.M., Jr. 1979 The licensing of marine recreational fishermen: state regulations and state officials' views. A professional paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree of Master of Agriculture, Texas A&M Univ., 63 pp.

Spaulding, I.A. 1976 Sociocultural values of marine recreational fishing, pages 60–71 in R.H. Stroud and H. Clepper (eds.), First Annu. Mar. Recreational Fish. Symp., Washington, D.C., Sport Fishing Institute.

Stone, R.B., et al. 1979 A comparison of fish populations on an artificial and natural reef in the Florida Keys. Mar. Fish. Rev., 41(9): 1–11.

Stroud, R.H. 1974 Why do people fish? SFI Bull. 258: 1–2.

Stroud, R.H. 1974 Tournament bass fishing. SFI Bull. 251:4.

Stroud, R.H. 1976 People fish mostly to catch fish. SFI Bull. 274:1–2.

Stroud, R.H. 1977 Changing challenges in recreational fisheries. SFI Bull. 284:1–6.

Stroud, R.H. 1977 Marine recreational fisheries under extended jurisdiction. SFI Bull. 290:1–5.

Stroud, R.H. 1978 Biting the saltwater angling bullet. SFI Bull. 299: 1–4.

Stroud, R.H. 1978 Recreational fishing, pages 53–66 in H.P. Brokaw, Project Director and Editor. Wildlife and American contributions to an understanding of American wildlife and its conservation, Washington, D.C., U.S. Gov't. Printing Office.

Stroud, R.H. and H. Clepper (eds.) 1975 Black bass biology and management. Washington, D.C., Sport Fishing Institute, 534 pp.

Stroud, R.H. and H. Clepper. (eds.) 1979 Predator-prey systems in fisheries management. Washington, D.C., Sport Fishing Institute, 504 pp.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 1978 1977 Annual Report on the Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976. Washington, D.C., U.S. Gov't. Printing Office, 29 pp. and 8 tables.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 1978 Fisheries of the United States, 1978. U.S. Nat. Mar. Fish. Serv. Current Fisheries Statistics, No. 7800.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 1979 Toward a partnership for the development of the United States commercial fishing industry. Washington, D.C., Final report of the Dept. of Commerce Task Force on Fisheries Development, 88 pp., (mimeo).

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1956 National survey of fishing and hunting, 1955. Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Circular 44, 50 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1961 National survey of fishing and hunting, 1960. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 120, 73 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1966 National survey of fishing and hunting, 1965. U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Resour. Publ. 27, 76 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1972 National survey of fishing and hunting, 1970. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv. Resour. Publ. 95, 108 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1977 National survey of hunting, fishing, and wildlife-associated recreation, 1975. Washington, D.C., U.S. Gov't. Printing Office, 95 pp.

Wallace, D.H. 1976 The federal role in marine recreational fisheries management, pages 138–144 in R.H. Stroud and H. Clepper (eds.). First Annu. Mar. Recreational Fish. Symp., Washington, D.C., Sport Fishing Institute.

Walton, I. 1953 The compleat angler. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, The Izaak Walton League of America, 1953 tricentennial edition, Stackpole. 192 pp.

Walton, J.M. 1979 Puget Sound artificial reef study. Wash. Dept. of Fish., Tech. Rept. 50, 130 pp.

Weld, C.M. 1979 Basics of a uniform state marine recreational fishing license law, pages 123–129 in R.H. Stroud and H. Clepper (eds.). Fourth Annu. Mar. Recreational Fish. Symp., Washington, D.C., Sport Fishing Institute.

APPENDIX I. MAJOR UNITED STATES LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITIES INVOLVING RECREATIONAL FISHING

Federal Aid in Fish Restoration Act of 1950 (sometimes known as the Dingell-Johnson Act) (16 U.S.C. 777-777k).

This is a federal grant-in-aid authorization designed to help the states solve their sport fishery problems. The Secretary of the Interior is authorized and directed to cooperate with the states in fish restoration and management projects. Such projects must be substantial in character and design and may include investigations to produce information for solving fish restoration and management problems; acquisition of land and waters to increase public fishing opportunities; and development to create new waters and to increase productivity in existing waters. Funds for the program are derived from a 10% manufacturer's excise tax on fishing rods, creels, reels, and artificial lures, baits and flies. Apportionment is made to the states according to a formula based upon both the ratio of the area of each state and the ratio of the number of sport fishing licenses issued in each state. The federal share cannot exceed 75% of the cost of a project. To participate, a state must have fishery conservation laws, including a prohibition against the use of license fees paid by fishermen for any purpose other than the administration of that State's fish and game department.

Submerged Lands Act of 1953 (43 U.S.C. 1301–1315, 1954; originally enacted as Act of May 22, 1953, Ch. 65, 67 Stat. 29).

States of the Union were granted title to and ownership of natural resources off their coasts including the “right and power to manage, administer, lease, develop, and use the said lands and natural resources … in accordance with applicable state law.” According to Knight (1979), “the seaward extent of coastal states' jurisdiction over such natural resources was established in the Act at three nautical miles from the coastline, with an exception permitting States abutting the Gulf of Mexico to establish broader limits of jurisdiction (up to a maximum of three marine leagues) based on historical boundaries.”

The Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956 (16 U.S.C. 742a et seq.).

This Act directs the federal government to conduct continuing investigations on the availability and abundance and the biological requirements of the fish and wildlife resources and to prepare and disseminate information, and make periodic reports to the public, to the President, and to Congress with respect to these matters.

The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1934 (16 U.S.C. 661 et seq.).

The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (FWCA) was developed in recognition of the vital contribution that fish and wildlife resources make to our nation and from increased public interest and significance placed thereof. The FWCA provides that wildlife conservation shall receive equal consideration and be coordinated with other features of water-resource development programs. As amended, it required the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service to review all proposed federal actions that may affect any stream or other body of water and to provide recommendations to minimize project related impacts on fish and wildlife resources.

The Migratory Marine Game Fish Study Act of 1959 (16 U.S.C. 760e-760g).

The Secretary of the Interior (now Commerce) is directed to undertake a comprehensive continuing study of the migratory marine fish of interest to recreational fishermen including species inhabiting offshore waters and species which migrate through inshore waters. Included in such study shall be research on migration, identity of stocks, growth rates, mortality rates, variations in survival and environmental influences including pollution, and to develop wise conservation policies and constructive management. The Secretary is authorized to acquire lands, construct facilities, purchase boats, equipment, and apparatus, and to employ persons as he deems necessary. The Secretary may cooperate or contract with state and other institutions and make public the results of the research conducted pursuant to the Act. No more than $2,7 million were to be appropriated for the purposes of this Act in any one fiscal year.

Reorganization Plan No. 4 of 1970 (Effective October 3, 1970, under the provisions of 5 U.S.C. 906).

Among other things, Section 1b of Reorganization Plan No. 4 transferred the following to the Secretary of Commerce: “The functions vested in the Secretary of the Interior by the Act of September 22, 1959, (Public Law 86–359, 73 Stat. 642, 16 U.S.C. 760e–760g: relating to migratory marine species of game fish).”

The Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976 (16 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.).

This law is interim legislation, to be in effect only until a comprehensive Law of the Sea treaty signed by the U.S. goes into effect. The Act extends the U.S. exclusive fishery zone from 12 to 200 nautical miles (22,2–370 km). The Act provides the U.S. with exclusive management authority over (1) all fish in the fishery conservation zone, (2) all anadromous species throughout their migratory range beyond the conservation zone, with an exception, and (3) all continental shelf fishery resources beyond the conservation zone. Highly migratory species of tuna are excluded.

The Act makes it clear as a matter of national policy that domestic fishing needs will receive preferential consideration over foreign fishing activities within our 200-mile fishery conservation zone. But the Act goes even further. It explicitly states that recreational and domestic commercial fishing are to be promoted, and that fair and equitable consideration must be given to both commercial and recreational fishery interests.