Muraviovka Park for Sustainable Land Use is a private protected area located along the Amur River (far eastern Russia), the largest free flowing river in the world. It was instituted in 1994, when a Russian NGO (the Amur Programme of Socio-Ecological Union) received financial support from the International Crane Foundation (USA) and the Pop Group Corporation (Japan)23. This park was created in order to further the research into new strategies of environmental conservation and sustainable development through techniques of sustainable agriculture, protection and improvement of wildlife habitat and ecotourism. The Park occupies an area of more than 5 200 hectares of wetland and plateau lands surrounded by croplands. Muraviovka wetlands were also included in the Ramsar Convention of Wetlands of International Importance.
Muraviovka Park and its buffer zone are a critical habitat for more than 200 bird species (nesting and migrating), sheltering the endangered red-crowned cranes (Grus japonensis, the second most endangered crane species in the world), white-naped cranes (Grus vipio), hooded cranes (Grus monacha), oriental white storks (Ciconia boycians), and many others. The high level of biodiversity is also demonstrated by the identification of more than 520 plant species24.
This area offers excellent soil and climatic condition for crop growing, but the farming practices of burning straw and using large quantities of pesticides and herbicides have caused considerable damage to wildlife, human health and the economy.
A Demonstration Farm (460 ha) was developed by the Park in some tillable lands of the protected area, showing how sustainable agriculture fields near wetlands offer breeding, roosting and feeding habitats for birds. The principal crops are wheat, barley, soybeans and different varieties of corn. The use of traditional varieties, strict crop rotations, a fallow strategy and multiple cultivations has allowed the elimination of pesticides and agrochemicals (production is not certified as organic at this time). Yields obtained with these practices exceed those of the local conventional farmers around the park with only half of the production costs. This has convinced many farmers to change their agricultural practices25. Corn is planted as a lure crop offering foraging for wildlife foraging, to keep cranes out of agricultural fields and therefore to avoid conflict between birds and farmers. As agricultural activities started to change and preservation of wetlands increased, the number of cranes and storks increased two to three times.
The management of Muraviovka Park also involves trimming trees to accommodate nesting storks, controlling fires and reforestation. This Park represents an important source of income for the local population and provides financial support to hospitals, schools and other local structures26.
The Ebro Delta is one of the most important wetlands in Europe. Conservation of healthy ecosystem and biological diversity is a priority in this exclusive environment composed of coastal lagoons, marshes and paddy fields. The Delta represents an important habitat for resident bird species and an excellent resting, moulting and feeding area for many migratory bird species. At present, a total of 330 bird species live or have been observed in the Ebro Delta27. The area comprises a National Park and a Special Protection Area28 that includes the Ornithological Reserve of SEO/BirdLife, fulfilling the purpose of restoration and ecological management of wetlands, conservation and improvement of wildlife habitats, and the increase of biological diversity.
A LIFE project29 entitled "Improvement of habitat management in the Special Protection Area of the Ebro Delta" was initiated in 1997 to enlarge the area occupied by natural habitats and to restore an ecological equilibrium between wetlands, lagoons and rice cultivations, mitigating the negative environmental impacts caused by the large use of pesticides and fertilizers30. Scientific monitoring indicates that the best environmental and economical agricultural system suitable for the purpose proposed is organic farming31.
Available data demonstrate that organic management of rice paddy fields provides optimal foraging areas for birds32 and is beneficial to many endangered species of birds, such as the cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), little egret (Egretta garzetta), grey heron (Ardea cinerea), purple heron (Ardea purpurea), purple swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio), squacco heron (Ardeola ralloides), black-winged stilt (Himantopus himantopus) and many others.
Beneficial effects on species density and diversity are also verified for water macro-invertebrates (Odonata, Hemiptera and Gasteropoda) and plants - especially holly-leaf naiad (Najas minor), spiny naiad (Najas marina), alkali (Scirpus maririmus) and some macro-alga. During the flooding period, the network of irrigation canals and the organic paddy fields close to lagoons become a crucial link between marine and river environments, and provide an important habitat for many species of fish and amphibians, such as damnbusia (Gambusia holbrooki), carp (Cyprinus carpio), fartet (Lebias ibera - an endemic fish of the western Mediterranean Sea), coruna frog (Rana perezi), and others. It has also been found that the quality of water is better in organic rice cultivations (in terms of dissolved nutrients and presence of residual agrochemicals), so organic farming is beneficial not only to the rice system, but to all living species and habitats present in the Ebro Delta33.
Economically speaking, the selling price of organic rice in the Ebro Delta is higher than conventional rice, and permits greater profit to farmers, in spite of the major cost of labour (25 percent more than conventional farming) and lower yields (minus 15 percent in organic paddy fields). Marketing organic rice is another objective of the project, a direct consequence of the expected growth in number of farms that will convert their fields into organic plantations. At present, there are three organic rice farms involved in the project34.
The Pantanal is the largest tropical wetland ecosystem on the Earth, recognized by the United Nations as the Biosphere Reserve (it is the world's third largest Biosphere Reserve). It is located in central South America, in the upper Paraguay River basin. This flat area of approximately 140 000 km2 consists of grassland, woodlands and various types of forest, and it is periodically flooded, creating temporary lakes, rivers, swamps and lagoons connected in a large water web. The influence of four biomes (Amazon jungle, savannah-like Cerrado, Bolivian Chaco dry forest, and Atlantic Forest) determines an extraordinary abundance of faunal and floral species35, giving it the deserving title of "the world's biggest ecological sanctuary36".
The Paraguay River offers a suitable habitat for more than 250 species of fishes, including many species of piranha (Serrasalmus sp.). There are 700 bird species in the region, most of which are typical wetland birds (ibis, stork, heron, roseate spoonbill, etc.). There is also a great abundance of birds of prey (45 species) indicating a balanced ecosystem. At least 50 threatened or endangered species live in the Pantanal Region37. The most representative are the jabiru stork (Jabiru mycteria - the symbol of the Pantanal), the Pantanal marsh deer (Blastocerus dichotomus), jaguar (Panthera onca), capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris - the world's largest rodents), puma (Felis concolor), manned wolf (Chrysocyon Brachyurus), Paraguayan caiman (Caiman crocodilus), anaconda (Eunectes murinus), blue hyacinth macaw (Ara ararauna), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), giant armadillo (Priodontes giganteus), river otter (Lutra canadensis), giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and many others.
Approximately 99 percent of the Pantanal Region is made up of around 2 500 private ranches (called "Fazendas"), where beef cattle rearing is traditionally the main economic activity38. In the last few years, the increasing productivity has threatened the equilibrium of the system, due to the introduction of non-sustainable practices such as man-made fires or deforestation of savannah areas for the implementation of artificial pastures for beef. The protection of the Pantanal Region, consequently, must consider the beef cattle production system.
The Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (Embrapa - Agricultural Research Center) leads several projects on sustainable development and organic production in the Pantanal region, including actions on organic beef cattle production, foraging strategies, and rotational grazing systems. This institution has identified almost 2 000 local plant species of interest for forage, honey, fruits and wood production. Moreover, plans are being studied for sustainable management of natural grasslands (as feeding support for domestic and wild herbivores) and the potential use of native breeds for the animal production system. Embrapa's research indicates the possibility of using regional resources in a sustainable and organic way resulting in increasing income and improvement in the quality of life of the indigenous population39.
Very recently, farmlands have been permitted within legislated protected areas40 and this is a critical step towards the preservation of Canadian biodiversity as most of the habitat of native species is on privately owned farmlands41.
The Land Conservancy of British Columbia is leading a programme called "Conservation Partners", in which many certified organic farmers are involved in several different cropping different production systems42 (i.e. arable lands, organic orchards, honey production and many others). The objective is to protect, restore and enhance natural habitats such as wetlands, marsh, bunchgrass and sagebrush. This programme is active in the South Okanagan-Similkameen area, where there is an abundance of rare and endangered species that live in the riparian habitats mentioned above43. Farms participating in this programme are helping to preserve these special natural areas, thus contributing to the safeguarding of a healthy ecosystem.
A similar situation is occurring in Alberta, where what remains of the unique combination of wetland, boreal and grassland habitats is controlled mainly by landowners. In those environments 24 out of 31 species are at risk, such as the burrowing owl (Speotyto cunicularia) and the loggerhead shrike (Lanus ludovicianus).
Currently, more than 20 000 hectares of prairie and parkland habitat are conserved thanks to the Parkland Stewardship Programme44, another initiative that "recognizes those individuals who have integrated wildlife conservation with farming practices45".
The Biological Reserve of Cachalù is a protected area located in the eastern Andes Mountains. The area is characterized by the presence of the Andean Oak Forest (mainly composed of the endemic Quercus humboldtii and Trigonobalanus excelsa). Other principal species of plants are the Colombian pine or romerón (Podocarpus sp.), cedar (Cedrela sp.), orchids and many varieties of epiphytes. Two hundred and twenty-five species of birds and 70 species of mammals live in this forest46, most of which are threatened and endemic species. The faunal species include gorgeted wood-quail (Odontophorus strophium - endemic and vulnerable), mountain grackle (Macrogelaius subalaris - endemic), black Inca (Coeligena prunellei - endemic), cock of the rock (Rupicola peruviana), wattled Guan (Aburria aburri - locally endangered), Andean bear (Tremarctos ornatus - endangered), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), red howler monkey or cotudo (Alouatta seniculus), and others.
The practice of clearing the forest by small farmers for agricultural fields is widespread in this region. Usually they use the land just for 2-3 years, until it becomes unproductive.
In the buffer zone of the Reserve, Fundacion Natura has been leading the "Sustainable Agriculture Program" with local farmers since 199747. The project focuses on reducing the negative impacts that some local traditional agricultural practices (especially related to cattle pasture) cause on the wild faunal and floral species living in the last fragment of the Oak Forest remaining in the region. It aims to protect the genetic diversity and to conserve the natural communities. The farmers in their fields pursue this objective through the improvement of farm production and the use of sustainable management. At present the project is in its first phase promoting sustainable cattle raising and the implementation of alternative livestock feeding. Many species of multipurpose fodder trees are being planted in local farms. The selected trees provide foliage rich in protein (several species fix atmospheric nitrogen), vitamins and minerals for livestock, are deep-rooted and drought resistant protecting the soil system against erosion, and activating nutrient recycling. The second phase of the project will involve the sustainable production of shade coffee, vegetables, corn, peas and yucca especially for self-consumption48.
Bali Barat National Park covers approximately 70 000 hectares (10 percent of Bali's total land area), and its mountainous landscape includes primary monsoon forest, mangrove forest and savannah49. These are ideal habitats for more than 300 bird species, (e.g. the pied fantail (Rhipidura javanica), yellow-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier), barn swallow (Hirundo rustica), crested treeswift (Hemiprocne coronata), collared kingfisher (Halycon chloris)) and many other animals (e.g. the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), ebony leaf monkey (Trachypithecus auratus), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), banteng (Bos javanicus), rusa deer (Cervus timorensis), etc.).50 A special project is involved in the protection of the rare endemic Bali starling (Leucopsar rothschildi), now only several hundred in number, and sandalwood (Santalum album)51.
A GEF Small Grants Programme supported local farmers in the practice of organic farming52 and other activities (e.g. boundary mapping and nursery for local plant species) with the purpose of protecting the natural diversity. The project is especially directed to the farmers living in Sumber Klampok (a village in the buffer zone of Bali Barat National Park). Initially the village was considered to be a danger to the forest, but it is now officially recognized as a village enclave within the National Park53. The production of organic corn and rice has brought higher earnings to the farmers, principally due to the avoidance of expensive pesticides and fertilizers.
The Yaoluoping National Resource Reserve was established in 1994 to protect the primary forest ecosystem in the Dabie Mountains and its habitats for rare wildlife54. The Reserve is a transition area from middle-low mountains to hilly land and plain, forming a belt through the Subtropical Zone and the Warm Temperate Zone. Due to its particular characteristics, the total area is extremely important for the protection of biological diversity in China.
There are more than 2 000 species of plants in the Yaoluoping subtropical forest ecosystem, including 23 rare and protected species such as the dabeshan pine (Pinus dabeshanensis), henry tree (Emmenopterys henryi), Chinese tulip tree (Liriodendron chinense), oyama magnolia (Magnolia siedoldii), and Changninia amoena. Vertebrates are present in 182 species, many of which are endangered, such as the Asiatic leopard (Panthera pardus fusca), Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus), and anhui musk deer (Moschus moschiferus anhuiensis)55.
A Sino-German Technical Cooperation Project is currently on-going in the protected area focusing on Organic Farming Development in China; it is led by the Organic Food Development Center of China (OFDC) and the Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)56. The organic agriculture project was initiated in 1997 with the study of the local agroecosystem. Following organic farming standards, an organic farming and soil-improvement plan have been established. Cultivation mainly includes organic tea and vegetables, but rice cultivation is also in conversion from conventional to organic57.
A three-year comparative study between organic and conventional farming in the area has shown enhanced soil fertility and higher natural and agricultural biodiversity in organic plots58. This confirms the assumption of improved wildlife and biodiversity in and around organic farms.
The Jeseniky Micro-Region is a Protected Landscape Area established in 1969 in the Moravia Region. It comprises 74 000 hectares of mountain area, mostly covered by spruce forest. 4865 hectares (equivalent to 43.5 percent of the agricultural land found in the protected area, or approximately 20 percent of agricultural land in the Moravia region) are managed organically59. There is the largest number of organic farms in the whole of the Czech Republic in this region. Some projects related to minor crops and agricultural biodiversity have been proposed by the Union of Ecological Farmers PRO-BIO (Ecological in the Czech Republic means Organic agriculture - it is certified according to EC Regulation Nr. 2092/91) but in the Jeseniky Micro-Region the main focus is biodiversity conservation on organic farms60.
Non-intensive animal farming for slaughter and breed cattle is the principal activity of the organic farms, with only 0.3 cattle units per hectare. Other production includes spelt wheat, barley, rye, triticale and milk. An interesting activity of the project includes the protection of semi-natural pastures and meadows used to obtain ancient varieties of seed material for sowing on the newly cultivated plots. During the last decade most arable land was converted to meadows and pastures with the aim to maintain and increase the local agrobiodiversity61, minimize soil erosion and avoid external inputs.
The El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve was formally established in 1990. This protected area occupies 120 000 hectares of the highlands of the Sierra Madre Occidental (Mexican state of Chiapas), and a large buffer zone (approximately 90 000 hectares) was established to provide protection to the core zones and to promote sustainable activities in local communities.
Different kinds of vegetation can be found in the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve, including tropical deciduous forest and montane rainforest on the lowlands, followed by pine-oak forest which transform into the last remaining evergreen cloud forest in southern Mexico at higher altitudes62. Its geographic and ecological characteristics provide basic conditions for the existence of a large biological diversity. A great number of threatened and endemic species are present in the region. The most representative floral species are silver pincushion (Tillandsia argentea), tri-colored air plant (Tillandsia tricolor), Mexican cypress (Cupressus benthamii), many species of orchids (i.e. Brassia verrucosa, Encyclia baculus, Lemboglossum cordatum, Oncidium bicallosum, Sobralia macrantha), the endemic Alfaroa aff. mexicana, Ficus crassicuscula, Zamia soconuscensis, Ceratozamia matudai, Quercus ovandensis, and others63. The "flagship" faunal species of the region are the quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno), gorned guan (Oreophasis derbianus), Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii), azure-rumped tanager (Tangara cabanisi), jaguar (Panthera onca), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), puma (Felis concolor), highland guan (Penelopina nigra), splayfoot salamander (Dendrotriton xolocalcae), tayra (Eira barbara), ornate hawk eagle (Spizaetus ornatus), and lineolate parakeet (Bolborhyncus lineola)64.
In the El Triunfo Biosphere Reserve and surrounding area, agricultural practices are fairly widespread, and coffee is the major production. The primary threats to local biodiversity are the expansion of non-sustainable agricultural fields deeper into the protected area, shifting from highly diverse traditional agroforestry systems to other agricultural crops with no secondary habitat value (e.g. maize), and increased habitat fragmentation.
Conservation International is leading the "Conservation Coffee Program" (initiated a little over a decade ago) with local cooperatives and small scale organic farmers in the buffer zone of the Reserve. Currently 1 250 farmers (approximately 3 500 ha of organic coffee) are involved in the project. The working hypothesis of the project is to explore to what degree opportunities for conservation benefits can be generated by working with the existing agroforestry system, with the purpose of adopting land-use management and agricultural practices that have the greatest potential for sustainable conservation of the forest ecosystem65. Conservation International, in collaboration with the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center, Rainforest Alliance and other, has identified "Conservation Principles for Coffee Production" guidelines for Conservation Coffee farmers. In fact, apart from organic farming, many other powerful benefits to biodiversity conservation come from practices that are not explicitly required by farmers. These are, for example, maintaining part of a farm area under forest, establishing riparian buffer zones of forest and natural vegetation, fostering native shade canopies, etc66. In shade coffee fields, where Conservation International promotes "Conservation Coffee", there have been beneficial effects on tropical forest ecosystems "by providing a critical habitat for plants and animals67".
Biodiversity conservation is promoted in the region at the same time as the objective of improving the lives of local people, bringing economic benefits directly to coffee producers who actively protect their environment.
The Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve protects an area covered by intact tropical forest. In Mexico this environment is little damaged by deforestation and conversion into agricultural land. However, in the buffer zones of the Reserve, particularly in a fragment of forest called Selva Lacandona, part of the agricultural land is utilized for the rustic plantations of sustainable shade cocoa under a canopy of forest trees. A study conducted by the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center found an extraordinarily high diversity and abundance of birds compared to other agricultural habitats68. Biodiversity and species richness in shade cocoa fields was similar to that of intact forest69. The plantations provided a suitable habitat also for bats and non-flying mammals, especially those closer to natural forest patches. Another ecological alternative to tropical forest destruction in the Selva Lacandona is provided by the cultivation of organic shade coffee70.
The Atlantic Rainforest is a threatened ecosystem, its conservation needs to focus on agricultural practices alternate to cattle rearing and sun crop. One such alternative is the cultivation of yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensis, it is used for making tea) under the forest canopy. In this kind of plantation, only the understory is removed and yerba mate is planted under the cover of the original forest trees. This sustainable management of the natural forest is pursued in the Guayaki Biological Reserve. The Reserve, also known as the Reserva Privada Estancia Itabo, has been managed in this way since 199771.
A comparative study between certified organic forest-grown yerba mate and intact native forest shows that the canopy bird community is well preserved in the cultivated area72. Approximately 60 percent of the bird species recognized in the forests were found in the yerba mate plantations. This is especially true of the canopy species, comprising most of the endangered and endemic species, such as vinaceous Amazon (Amazona vinacea), helmeted woodpecker (Dryocopus galeatus), bay-ringed tyrannulet (Phylloscartes sylviolus) and cream-bellied gnatcatcher (Polioptila lactea).
Organic forest-grown yerba mate represents a sustainable compromise between bird conservation and economic interests and is an excellent alternative to completely clearing Atlantic Rainforest for conventional agriculture. This is especially true as the conservation of this natural environment needs the presence of large and connected parks73.
The Guanacaste Conservation Area in Costa Rica was established for the purpose of restoring the dry tropical forest ecosystem with the adjacent rain forest and cloud forest. It comprises 120 000 terrestrial hectares in which approximately 230 000 floral and faunal species live (65 percent of the species living in Costa Rica)74. The conservation of this endangered ecosystem requires ecological management of the local agricultural landscape.
In 1995, the Rainforest Alliance and an orange juice processing company (Del Oro S.A.) started a programme for "ecofriendly orange production". The programme also comprised a "land exchange" between Del Oro and the Guanacaste Conservation Area. Del Oro exchanged more than 4 100 hectares of rare native forest that is now included in the park for an area excellently suited for orange farming, but of low ecological value75. At present, Del Oro's farm is a model of how farmland and conservation areas can co-exist. Its products have a double label: organic certification and Rainforest Alliance certification. To obtain the latter certification Del Oro has maintained natural ground cover within its orange producing areas, prohibited hunting and fishing on its properties and attempted to protect waterways with buffer strips of native forest. Rainforest Alliance assures that Del Oro's farm management can be a way to "reforest" some degraded areas usually dedicated to cattle, a common land use in the Guanacaste Region.
Guaraqueçaba is an Environmental Protection Area76 (313 000 ha) situated in Paraná State on Brazil's south-eastern coast. It homes a residual Atlantic Forest (1 000 m above sea level), declared as a World Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO. The protected area covers several ecosystems, such as submontane, montane and high montane forests, lowland forests, mangroves and wetlands. However, a large part of this environment was spoiled in order to obtain agricultural land for bananas, ginger, rice, vegetables and cattle pastures77.
Brazil's Atlantic Forest is an extremely valuable habitat for more than 80 percent of Brazilian endangered species78, and often new species are discovered in the region (e.g. the recent black-faced lion tamarin (Leontopithecus caissara)). Some of the most important species are the blue-headed parrot (Pionus menstruus), broad-nosed caiman (Caiman latirostris), jaguar (Panthera onca), cougar (Felis concolor), brown howler monkey (Alouatta fusca), lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), red-tailed Amazon (Amazona brasiliensis) and purple-bellied parrot (Triclaria malachitacea).
The Society for Wildlife Research and Environmental Education (SPVS) has developed a project to protect the threatened Atlantic Forest and its wildlife habitats. This project also provides for other local environmental needs, such as the protection of the watershed and the control of soil erosion. Included is a plan for helping small farmers to convert from conventional to organic agriculture and SPVS is at present working principally with banana producers, providing technical support and certification79. Organic agriculture and agroecological practices are production systems that SPVS believes to be beneficial to healthy environmental preservation and for local communities' income generation. For this reason SPVS is participating in the creation of an "Organic Agricultural Area" in the coastal region of the State of Paraná. The project in the Guaraqueçaba Environmental Protection Area is expected to benefit biodiversity, but at the moment few data are available on the relationship between organic agriculture and biodiversity conservation in this area.
In the Apurimac region (Eastern slopes of the southern Peruvian Andes) a small protected area of 3 635 hectares preserves one of the few remaining fragments of Intimpa Tree Forest (Podocarpus glomeratus), an endangered native conifer. The reserve, the Ampay Forest Sanctuary, was established in 1987 and defends a high number of biological resources associated with the forest. More than 800 species of plants and many mammals are found in this area, some of which are endangered, such as the cantuta flower (Fuchsia spp.), Andean bear (Tremarctos ornatus), puma (Felis concolor) and dwarf deer (Pudu mephistopheles)81.
A rural development programme led by the Environment and Development Institute was initiated in 1987 with the aim of reducing the pressure on natural riches82. It has contributed to the conversion to organic agriculture and ecological practices by local farmers, including the agroecological production of maize, vegetables and other characteristic products of the region, agroforestry and reforestation with native species and in-situ conservation of native cereals and tuber germoplasm (farmers have registered and keep 55 varieties of potatoes well adapted to the area and less sensitive to pests83)84.
Las Cañadas is a private ecological reserve (more than 270 hectares) in the State of Veracruz that protects one of Mexico's last fragments of tropical cloud forest. This environment is composed of evergreen trees and hosts extensive biodiversity (orchids, lichen, moss, bromeliads, ferns, etc.). In Mexico the cloud forests are seriously threatened, due to the encroachment of sun coffee fields and cattle farming85.
Land use in Las Cañadas changed from cattle farming to set aside land with the purpose of promoting reforestation. Approximately 50 000 native trees (mainly liquimbar, walnut, oak and ash) were planted. The Reserve hosts an "agroecological area" divided into an organic garden (3 ha) and an organic milk farm (25 ha). Empirical observations show that organic gardening has less pests than other sites86. The objectives of the Reserve, apart from conservation of cloud forest, are to minimize soil erosion, promote sustainable production, eradicate poverty and encourage local people to undertake a similar type of conversion to sustainable agriculture87.
El Salvador is the smallest country in Central America with serious environmental degradation, in fact only 2 percent of the original natural forest is still present. More than half of the country's population lives in rural areas, working farms of less than 3 ha each. Unsustainable land-use practices have contributed to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity and a general worsening of the natural environment. El Salvador is part of the Neotropical realm, and the few patches of natural areas (Montane Forest, Pacific Dry Forest, Sierra Madre Moist Forest, Pine-Oak Forest) present a richness of biodiversity and many organisms with a high degree of endemism. Most of the studies available are focused on bird biodiversity: 509 species of birds are found in El Salvador, 310 of which are Neotropical residents, 128 are found only in forest habitat, 2 are considered endangered species and 24 vulnerable at global level. There are also more than 400 species of birds migrating from North America, including some species considered at risk. Other interesting living resources in El Salvador are some endemic species of beetles, salamanders, bats and orchids.
Coffee plantations are usually located in mid-elevation zones (500 to 2 000 m), where the landscape is characterized by fragmented pine-oak woodland and premontane tropical forest88. The main crop is coffee (approximately 9 percent of the country farmlands), produced in 20 000 coffee farms and employing around 134000 people, who often do not receive any technical advice on coffee production. Most of the coffee planted grows under shade. At present, there are 2 000 hectares of certified organic coffee and a further 2 000 ha of organic coffee are in transition to becoming certified.
Salvadoran shade coffee could also be certified as "biodiversity-friendly". This is a different label that may be obtained even if the farm is not certified as organic. The principal requirements for this label are to have at least 40 percent of the plantation area under shade canopy (as is the case with 30 percent of the coffee area), to adopt a soil conservation system where there is risk of erosion, to include at least 10 species of native trees in shade canopy and a minimum of 70 percent of evergreen species, to preserve native forest on the farm, to protect endangered species of flora and fauna, to give priority to biological pest control and soil fertilization, leading to a reduction in the use of agrochemicals. At present there is no certification body for organic or biodiversity-friendly coffee in the country, but SalvaNatura and Rainforest Alliance (with funding from the Global Environmental Facility - GEF) are leading a certification programme (ECO-OK) with the objective of improving the management of the buffer zone between the national parks and to obtain economic incentives and payment for environmental services89.
The GEF project named "Promotion of Biodiversity Conservation within Coffee Landscapes" was initiated in 1998 and was promoted in the Apaneca mountain range, an area that contains many shade coffee plantations together with ancient forest strips. This area is located between two of the major and most biologically rich National Parks in El Salvador: El Imposible and Los Volcanes. Its main outcome is to conserve important biodiversity in El Salvador through the maintenance of natural forest integrity and the increase of the area cultivated under shade coffee.
It is very important to maintain shade coffee plantations with abundant forest cover, because they can carry out the role of buffer zones and from the backbone of the biological corridor linking the two national Parks and other forest fragments. Eventually, it will become one of the most important corridors in the region involved with the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor's programme90. At present, the project area is roughly 75 000 ha, 5 percent of which is under shade coffee certified as organic and/or biodiversity friendly.
Ecological research in these national parks and in coffee plantations around them has shown the presence of more than 300 species of birds, with many endemics, threatened forest specialists and birds of prey (e.g. black hawk-eagle Spizaetus tyrannus), 31 mammals species (some of them are endangered species such as the ocelot, cacomistle and Mexican porcupine), 26 reptile species, and 326 tree and bush species. Recently in El Imposible National Park a plant species new to science (Ageratum salvanaturae) was identified (Norbert Kilian and Boris Smalla).
The principal activities of the project are: development of extension services promoting biodiversity-friendly coffee and environmental education to the coffee producers; development of a certification programme for biodiversity-friendly coffee; test marketing and market development for certified biodiversity-friendly coffee; and biological and socio-economic monitoring.
So far, ecological data indicate the high potential role for shade coffee cultivation in biodiversity conservation through the provision of habitats available for wildlife and the reduced applications of fertilizers, pesticides and fungicides.
International markets offer good opportunities for this organic and biodiversity-friendly coffee. In the United States, for example, there are several organic coffee companies that offer this product calling it "bird-friendly91" coffee. However, there is a lack of an established product distribution system for biodiversity-friendly coffee, even though ecological awareness is high in many countries importing coffee.
Shade coffee farmers obtain not only coffee from their plantations, but also firewood, fence posts, construction materials and fruits. Further gains could also come in the form of eco-tourism. In addition, improved biodiversity has a positive social impact for many local inhabitants, especially those who have a close relationship with their surrounding environment. Moreover, the abundance of flora in shade coffee plantations provides diverse food and medicinal plants. Although coffee yields are lower than with the sun cultivation system, these additional products ensure the potential to earn a reliable income. Shade coffee plantations also have greater labour demands than full sun coffee, increasing rural development opportunities.
One of the main problems in Costa Rica, and in the whole of Central America, is that of unsustainable agricultural practices such as tropical deforestation92 for the commercial production of bananas, timber extraction, production of palms for house construction and logging of natural forest. This has resulted in a decrease in biodiversity of approximately 3 percent per year of biodiversity even though 11 percent of Costa Rican land area is under protection. This fact reinforces the need to maintain and conserve biodiversity within both the forest reserves and their agricultural buffer zones.
The Talamanca-Caribbean Corridor is found in the south-east of Costa Rica. It is an area with a tropical rainy climate containing a rich diversity of flora and fauna. There are more than 14 000 species of plants in this area (including roughly 1 000 orchid species and 1 000 ferns), 350 species of birds (e.g. quetzals and eagles), 59 mammal species (e.g. ocelots and spider monkeys), 51 reptiles (e.g. boa constrictors and green iguanas) and 43 amphibians93. Most of the faunal diversity is endemic.
"Biodiversity Conservation in Cocoa Agroforestry", a GEF-funded project in the Talamanca-Caribbean Biological Corridor, is a good example of the ecological role that organic agriculture can have in a large area where biodiversity is protected within a biological corridor. As in the previous case of El Salvador, this corridor is part of the greater Mesoamerican Biological Corridor and its buffer zones. There are three natural reserves in the project area (Parque Internacional La Amistad, Parque Nacional Cahuita and Gandoca-Manzanillo Wildlife Refuge) which include tropical humid forests and premontane wet forests. Agricultural fields, mainly cultivated with cocoa, divide these protected areas. The principal aim of the project is to conserve the local natural heritage through the management of small scale indigenous cocoa farms according to both organic and ecological production principles, and to use sustainable agricultural systems as a connection between tropical forests in the protected areas.
Besides cocoa, other organic crops in Talamanca could also be considered for this project including coffee, blackberries, nutmeg, cinnamon, vegetables, ginger and especially bananas. In fact, organic farming is quickly developing locally thanks to the Talamanca Small Farmers' Association (APPTA), one of the largest associations of organic producers in Central America that helps small farmers with technical services and providing access to international markets for organic products.
Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is one of the most important crops in Costa Rica. It covers more than 4 000 hectares, approximately 3 000 ha of which are grown under a shade canopy. A large part of shade cocoa production is going to be certified organic. At present, about 20 percent of the world's organic cocoa is produced in Talamanca, equivalent to 250 tons94. Including the members of APPTA that produce both organic cocoa and bananas, more than 2 000 hectares in the region have obtained the organic certification95. Organic cocoa and bananas are often combined with fruits, tubers and other products, respecting the indigenous traditional system of production. Well managed agroforestry systems by local populations represent a valid alternative land use with positive effects on farmers' livelihoods and living standards. At the same time it has the capacity to preserve natural forest remnants and conserve wildlife.
Shade cocoa fields are usually of great importance in plant and animal diversity conservation due to their properties to support greater local biodiversity and to offer refuges and resources for many tropical forest organisms96. Traditionally cocoa grown under a floristically and structurally diverse shade canopy hosts several secondary plants (epiphytes, lianas, mistletoes, mosses and lichens) and animals (insects, herpetofauna, etc.). This further demonstrates that benefits of shade cocoa plantations, but also in serving as suitable refuge for migratory and resident birds, of which at least 7 species are considered threatened and 17 species at risk. This agroforestry system hosts a large number of individual and avifaunal species and provides niches similar to forests. Bird diversity in cocoa habitats seems to be equivalent to that of intact forests97 even if some studies suggest that species composition presents some differences98. The most important factor controlling the abundance and species composition of forest birds in the cocoa ecosystem is related to the structural complexity, the canopy tree diversity, the number of canopy trees and the availability of canopy food trees. Shade cocoa plantations also represent an excellent foraging and nesting zone for a large spectrum of forest mammals. Moreover, the shade canopy of cocoa plantations and forest patches in local farms allows easier movement of animals, playing the role of a corridor for regional wildlife. This is especially true of plantations close to patches of natural forest99.
Project activities include:
Farmers implementing the projects' activities have doubled their yields from an average of 200 kg/ha in the traditional system to 400 kg/ha in six years and have prevented the expansion of cultivation systems that require agrochemical inputs. The environmental benefits of the project in the Talamanca-Caribbean Biological Corridor (e.g. the conservation of biodiversity within cocoa plantations and increasing importance of cocoa fields as habitat and corridor for wildlife) have been verified through a participatory programme for monitoring biodiversity in crop lands, forest patches, and cocoa and banana plots using species of birds, mammals, butterflies and plants as key indicators. Further project outcomes included an enhanced knowledge of regional floral and faunal diversity, increased availability of seeds of native plant species, and awareness by indigenous farmers of the fundamental role of biodiversity for local agricultural sustainability.
The projects' success depends greatly on community participation, the stability and growth of organic cocoa and banana markets, and adoption of appropriate agricultural techniques by traditional cocoa farmers. The possibility of a decline in organic cocoa prices due to increasing international competition and the greater labour that organic cocoa requires, resisted by some farmers, represents the principal obstacle to continued progress. An obvious solution to this problem relies on the creation of economic and production incentives able to encourage the cultivation of sustainable organic cocoa.
Brandenburg contains many valuable natural areas that have survived relatively intact and with rich biodiversity. Fifteen protected areas have been established since 1990, with the aim to conserve this natural heritage and defend the biological diversity present in this region. Activities from several NGOs and the political strategies adopted for these parks and buffer zones have led to the increase in organic agriculture as a land-use management strategy, creating a complex web interconnecting the protected areas. Regionally important crops such as grains, potatoes and legumes are the main cultivates in the protected areas and buffer zones100.
The principal commonly pursued objectives are of ecological, social and economic interest, such as conservation of representative natural areas, the maintenance of the economic activities of the population and the creation of regional jobs in environmentally-orientated enterprises101. A fitting example resulting from these activities is an Ecological Village called Brodowin located in the Schorfheide-Chorin Biosphere Reserve, one of the three Biosphere Reserves existing in Brandenburg. It has 1 200 ha of organic agricultural area dedicated to on-farm research and ecological agriculture102. The main cultivates are cereals, fodder, vegetables and meadow orchards, together with livestock breeding and dairy production.
In the whole Brandenburg region research has been carried out in order to understand how farmers can follow nature conservation activities while not exceeding acceptable levels of negative economic effects on the farm business. Research includes the effects of organic systems on birds and arthropods. One such study has verified the higher presence of skylarks (Alauda arvensis) and other ground-breeding birds on organic legume-grass crops103.
Wild farming begins with practices that include planting native pollinator corridors, building ponds, bird and bat houses, restoring riparian and wetland habitats, adopting non lethal predator controls on ranches, and developing cropping systems uniquely adapted to a given ecosystem or bioregion.
The Adirondack coast of Lake Champlain is involved in a programme which combines sustainable farming with the protection of biodiversity104. It covers many hectares of natural land and farmland, including Jamie Phillips' farm (owned by the Eddy Foundation). This farm is a model farm found inside a wildlife corridor that connects the Adirondack National Park and Lake Champlain105. This corridor is called the Split Rock Wildway. Most of the area is covered by forest maintained in a natural state. The rest is composed of fields returning to forest and agricultural fields dedicated to organic farming (fruits, vegetables, grains and mushrooms). The organic fields are criss-crossed with hedgerows of native fruit-bearing trees and shrub species, and are set in a matrix of natural forest106, making them a suitable habitat for pollinators, grassland birds, raptors and small mammals.
22 The case studies have been compiled by Christian Melis, who's voluntary contribution to this research is highly appreciated.
23 Smirenski S. M., 1998.
24 Smirenski S. M., 2001; Smirenski S. M. et al., 2001.
25 Danner G., pers. comm.
26 Zhuravl, 2002.
27 Ibáñez C., 1999.
28 "In 1979 the European Community adopted the Council Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds (79/409/EEC). This Directive is usually referred to as the Birds Directive. It provides for the protection, management and control of all species of naturally occurring wild birds in the European territory of Member States. In particular it requires Member States to identify areas to be given special protection for the rare or vulnerable species listed in Annex I (Article 4.1) and for regularly occurring migratory species (Article 4.2) and for the protection of wetlands, especially wetlands of international importance. These areas are known as Special Protection Areas" (definition from Joint Nature Conservation Committee website).
29 LIFE is the financial procedure for the environmental political of the European Community. The actual LIFE Regulation is CE 1655/2000 (Italian Ministry of the Environment and Land website).
30 Seo/BirdLife.
31 Ibáñez C., 1999.
32 Riera X. et al., 1997; Ibáñez C., 1999.
33 Ibáñez C., 1999; Ibáñez C., 1999.
34 Ibáñez C., pers. comm.
35 Embrapa website.
36 Araras Eco Lodge website.
37 Swart F., 2000.
38 Aguilar R., pers. comm.
39 Aguilar R., pers. comm..
40 Walkden N., pers. comm.
41 The Land Conservancy website.
42 Conservation Partners Project website.
43 Black S., pers. comm.
44 Fortune J., (1996).
45 Environment Canada website; World Commission on Protected Areas website.
46 Rainforest Alliance website.
47 Fundacion Natura website.
48 Arango S., pers. comm.
49 Bali Barat National Park website.
50 Bali Barat website; Bali Barat National Park website.
51 Mahaningtyas A., pers. comm.
52 Global Environment Facilities website.
53 Johannesburg Summit 2002 website.
54 Yonggang Y., pers. comm.
55 YNRR website.
56 OFDC-GTZ.
57 Xiao X., pers. comm.
58 Yonggang Y., pers. comm.
59 Sarapatka B. pers. comm.
60 Urban J., pers. comm.
61 Sarapatka B. et al., 2001.
62 Eccardi F. and Carrillo C., 1997.
63 Gómez-Pompa A. and R. Dirzo, 1995.
64 Hamner T., pers. comm.; Gómez-Pompa A. and R. Dirzo, 1995.
65 Hamner T., pers. comm.
66 Conservation International et al., 2001.
67 Conservation CoffeeTM .
68 Parrish J. et al., 1999.
69 Greenberg R., 1999.
70 Rice R. and Ward J., 1996.
71 Pryor A., pers comm.
72 Cockle K., pers. comm.
73 Cockle K., pers. comm.
74 Area de Conservacíon Guanacaste website.
75 Rainforest Alliance website.
76 UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre website.
77 Ferretti A., pers. comm.
78 Earthsbirthday website.
79 Ferretti A., pers. comm.
80 National Sanctuaries are "designated to protect a species or an animal or plant community by declaring it intangible, and to preserve natural formations that are of scientific or scenic interest" (Silvana Tours website).
81 Welcome to Perú website.
82 Flores-Escudero, 2000 in Stolton S., 2002.
83 Biological Diversity in Perú, 1997.
84 Istituto de Desarollo y Medio Ambiente website.
85 Las Cañadas website.
86 Romero R., pers. comm.
87 Las Cañadas website.
88 Perfecto et al., 1996.
89 Global Environment Facilities website.
90 Mesoamerican Biological Corridor is a programme concerning sustainable development and management in several protected areas and buffer zones linked by Connectivity Zones and Multiple-Use Zones (corridors). It involves 7 countries and many NGOs and local communities.
91 "Bird-friendly" is an U.S.A. commercial label.
92 Approximately 300 000 hectares of tropical forest are destroyed every year (Wille C., 1997)
93 Global Environment Facilities website; The Unofficial Publication of a Lone Herpetologist, 1997.
94 Stolton S., 2002; WRI, 2001; Global Environment Facilities website.
95 Damiani O., 2001.
96 Rice R. and Greenberg R., 2000.
97 Parrish J. et al., 1998; Parrish J. et al., 1999; Global Environment Facilities website; Reitsma R. et al., 1999.
98 Reitsma R. et al., 2001.
99 Rice R. and Greenberg R., 2000; Parrish J. et al., 1998.
100 Schulze U., 2002.
101 Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) website.
102 Schorfheide-Chorin Biosphere Reserve International Workshop, 2000.
103 Saake and Fuchs, 1998 in Stolton S., 2002.
104 Baumgartner J. A., pers. comm.
105 Imhoff D., 2001.
106 Baumgartner J. A., pers. comm.
