This chapter deals with planned intervention to alter or maintain the dynamics of forest patterns at the micro (local) and macro (regional/national) levels to ensure the sustained flow of goods and services. It includes information on problems faced in the management of forest resources, national forest policy, forest management units, forest management plans, and forest organization in defining the efficiency and sustainability of natural resources in the context of increasing population density and a local subsistence economy.
The National Forest Policy (NFP) of 1991 guides the planning and management of forest resources in Bhutan. The implementation of the NFP has lead to (a) strategic sectoral planning, (b) legislative support and (c) institutional restructuring and realignment. Strategic sectoral planning has identified the means and actions to implement the policy, such as MPFD (1991). The revised Forest and Nature Conservation Act of 1995 now provides legal support to enforce policy provisions. The restructuring and realignment of institutions has reduced transaction costs and improved the efficiency of strategic planning, management, implementation, monitoring and corrective action.
The constraint at the local level is the concentration of human settlements (mostly in valleys) in and around forest areas. The management of forest is getting complex due to increasing population pressure, incentive to harvest for foreign exchange, and issue of centralized versus decentralized control of these forest resources. Locality specific planning and management of resources seems necessary to optimize the use and sustainability of forest resources.
The main problem across all the climatic zones (Table 8) are localized overuse of forest resources. This mainly includes over-harvesting of forest resources (fuelwood, grass and shrubs through grazing and browsing, small timber and medicinal plants), shifting cultivation and poaching. More than 85 percent of forest products (1.0 million cubic meters of firewood, 250,000 trees and 120,000 poles for construction) are consumed in the rural and semi-urban areas. This is more than the sustainable annual allowable cut of about 1.18 million cubic meters (MPFD, 1991) of total wood from operable areas.
Table 8. Main forest resource problems in different climatic zones
Main problems |
Alpine Zone |
Sub-Alpine Zone |
Temperate Zone |
Sub-Tropics Zone |
Tropical Zone |
Shifting cultivation |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ | |
Over-grazing |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
Over-harvesting of fuelwood |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
Over-harvest medicinal plants |
_ |
||||
Over-tapping of resin |
_ |
||||
Over-harvesting of hardwoods |
_ |
_ | |||
Encroachment of forest |
_ |
_ |
_ | ||
Forest fire |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ |
Poor logging methods |
_ |
_ |
_ |
||
Poisoning of predators |
_ |
_ |
|||
Poaching of wild animal |
_ |
_ |
_ |
_ | |
Mining damage |
_ |
_ |
(Source of information: MPFD, 1991, NRAS, 1996, and Wangchuk, 1998)
Inadequate research information and human resource capacity limits understanding of the problems and the opportunities offered by forest resources. At the national level, the large forest resource-base with limited access, coupled with the early stage of accelerated economic development, is an ideal context for developing an effective forest policy, planning framework and management strategy. At the local (micro) level, diverse forest patterns, ranging from growth to degradation, are emerging due to variations in resource availability per household, enforceability of forest regulations, market pressures and social, economic and ecological conditions. However, there is lack of scientific information to address these local and national patterns.
The Forest Policy of 1991(NFP) seeks to ensure that resources contribute to social justice and equity and that they are sustainably managed and used. The policy directs that the goal of environmental conservation should override financial considerations from forests (NRAS, 1996), and sets out four main goals for the forestry sector:
The Forest Policy of 1991 and the Forest and Nature Conservation (FNC) Act of 1995 define the objectives of forest planning and require an approved forest management plan for each reserved forests in Bhutan and especially for logging areas. The Forest Department basically classifies the whole forested area into two categories: (a) protected areas in forests and (b) the balance of the forest areas. The balance of the forest areas is further divided into (a) critical, fragile, and depleted forest areas for conservation and protection and (b) operable areas for production. The forest management units (FMU) or production units are then carved out within the operable areas for preparation and implementation of forest management plans (FMP), which are long-term silvicultural plans for a ten year period for the sustainable management and production of forests..
Bhutan has about 902,000 ha of gross operable (production) areas (total forest area less the area of protected areas and critical watersheds) that consist of about 639,000 ha of net operable forest area spread over about 34 sub-catchments with an annual sustainable capacity to provide 1.184 million cubic meters of wood (MPFD, 1991). The net operable forest area has been derived by excluding forests at elevations higher than 3,000 meters and those which occur on slopes of more than 100 percent from the gross operable (production) areas.
The forest department needs to prepare plans covering about 90,000 to 100,000 ha of operable area every year to cover all the identified operable forest areas with forest management plans on a ten year cycle (the period of a plan). The current annual capacity of the Forest Resources Development Section (Division), which prepares such plans, is about 10,000 to 40,000 ha. The progress of developing FMP plans is, therefore, slow and only about 25 percent (226,815 ha) of the total operable area is covered by forest management units for which plans have either been made or are in preparation.
Forest management planning has undergone a major transformation in techniques and contents to implement the direction of the Forest Policy of 1991 and the Forest and Nature Conservation Act of 1995. The forest planning aims to ensure:
Addressing the macro level needs of the state (equity, sustainability and revenue) and the micro level satisfaction from forest resources in a sustainable manner with limited available resources are the key issues in forest planning in Bhutan. The degree of information and models required for this purpose depend on the scale and level of analysis, complexity of integration, objectives of planning, present mode of land utilization in terms of different economic functions and an evaluation of land capabilities.
Forest planning in Bhutan has all three modern elements: (a) long-term macro national policy planning (LMPP), (b) medium-term meso-regional strategic planning (MMSP), and (c) short-term micro operational planning (SMOP). The LMPP deals with the long term (20 to 25 years) political and economic commitments and desires and issues crossing micro (village or micro-watershed) and meso (regional, district, sub-watershed) boundaries like watersheds, protected areas, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, water regulation in rivers for hydro-power generation systems, etc. The LMPP looks at trends rather than short-term fluctuations in the context, condition, expectations and capacity of natural resources such as forests. It is based on forecast ranges rather than an exact allocation of financial and other resources (manpower, equipment, technology, etc.) for the sector. It not only considers technology but institutional (social, legal, organizational, etc.) capacity and support. The work of development of such plans is done at the national level by the Forest Resources Development Section (FRDS) of the Forest Department (Division). The Master Plan for Forestry Development (MPFD, 1991) serves this purpose for Bhutan.
The purpose of the MMSP is to integrate the bio-physical, environmental, socio-economic, technical and development policy considerations for sustainable forest management and the optimal satisfaction of local community/societal needs from local forest resources. The period of the MMSP is about 5 to 10 years. Like the LMPP, it may not provide an exact allocation of financial and other resources and may be based on forecast ranges of likely availability of resources. The forest management plans prepared for each forest management unit in Bhutan for a period of ten years come under this category. The FRDS does this planning with the help of its GIS and Forest Inventory database.
The SMOP are annual or periodic (two to five years) detailed operational plans, normally prepared by the implementer with very good knowledge about proposed activities, site conditions and the availability of resources. The SMOP deals with site and activity specific cost estimates, staff responsibilities, deployment of equipment, and input and output monitoring and reporting. The two-year rolling operational plans prepared by respective Divisional Forest Officers (DFOs) come under this category. These operational plans include areas both within and outside the forests.
Successive five year plans (FYP) consider forest resources as a direct source of income for the state and a reservoir of social benefits such as the environment, water and climate for people. The plans treat forest based industries as additional or indirect sources of state income and employment.
All the five year plans have consistently maintained the objective of increasing the per capita income of rural communities through forestry activities. For example, the World Bank-Swiss Development Co-operation project operating in the eastern part of Bhutan encourages the households to establish private forest nurseries to increase personal or communal income and the local supply of good quality of forestry plants.
The State has recently (VIIth Five Year Plan) recognized that state control can only ensure "equity" at macro level and not "efficiency and utility" at the local level because of poor micro-level information and a lower stake in forest resources. The local social institutions possess better (past and current) information and have a higher stake in forest resources than the state. Therefore, they have the capacity to enhance "efficiency and utility". The changed perception of the state was reflected in the last (VIIth) five year plan, which initiated a contribution of local communities in the management of forest resources. The Forest and Nature Conservation Act 1995 has legitimized the strategy of involving local institutions through creation of "community forests"
The current (VIIIth) plan further develops this strategy by providing increased sharing of forest goods and services between the government and communities for sustainable forest resources management including protected areas. The main components of the program include: development of self-reliance by rural communities, support to rural households to develop strategies for sustained utilization of forest resources and promoting participation of communities in planning and managing their forests and economic development.
Bhutan, even with its limited financial resources, maintains roughly the same annual share of financial resources for the forestry sector. This demonstrates Bhutan's commitment to sustaining natural resources and the environment. The forestry share in the five year plan has been increased through externally aided forestry projects.
The forests in Bhutan are generally managed under many variations of five basic silvicultural systems: (a) selection cum improvement system for both broadleaved and conifer forests, (b) seed tree system for chir pine and blue pine, (c) group selection system for mixed conifer forests, (d) clear felling and planting and (e) fir management system. The forests vary significantly among forest management units, leading to the variations in the contents and depth of forest management plans. The quality of management plans is improving with experience. The plan for the Khotokha Unit (Dhital, 1998) is an excellent example of a modern forest management plan.
Firewood extraction, shifting cultivation, improved pastures, and water harvesting are some of the current issues of sustainability. The current forest classification into operable and non-operable forests provided by MPFD (1991) does not have the capacity to deal with these issues. Therefore, forest zoning by function and by agency of control (local or state) may be necessary in this context. This will require in-depth studies to understand these issues and then to search out alternatives to deal with them.
Table 9. Management plans and forest management units
Dzongkhag |
Name of units |
Period |
Area (ha) |
AAC (m3) |
Volume per ha. |
Remarks |
Dawathang |
FMPUP |
17 412 |
316.03 |
FMPUP | ||
Gyetsa |
FMPUP |
16 610 |
325.27 |
FMPUP | ||
Karshong |
1994-2004 |
4 715 |
5 300 |
276.24 |
FMPUI | |
Shingkhar east |
1993-2003 |
2 917 |
4 830 |
N/A |
FMPUI | |
Chukkha |
Metapchhu |
FMPUP |
9 519 |
134.44 |
FMPUP | |
Dagana |
Tseza |
FMPUP |
19 290 |
- |
- |
FMPUP |
Gasa |
NO FMU |
NOFMU | ||||
Haa |
Haa East |
1994-2004 |
7 040 |
12 949 |
428.2 |
FMPUI |
Sele La |
1998-2008 |
7 662 |
10 000 |
613.22 |
FMPUP | |
Lhuntse |
NO FMU |
NOFMU | ||||
Mongar |
Gyelpoizhing |
1990-1992 |
212 |
6 800 |
119.25 |
WSEXP |
Korila |
1993-2002 |
13 840 |
8 375 |
164.73 |
FMPUI | |
Lingmithang |
1998-2007 |
10 579 |
6 544 |
148.45 |
FMPUI | |
Tsamang |
1998-2000 |
699 |
4 700 |
N/A |
WSUI | |
Paro |
Paro-Zonglaila |
1992-2002 |
16 154 |
25 000 |
466.95 |
FMPUI |
Pema gatshel |
NO FMU |
NO MU | ||||
Punakha |
Rimchu (WS) |
1995-97 |
4 800 |
600 |
108.35 |
WSEXP |
S/Jongkhar |
Geruwa |
FMPUP |
226.34 |
FMPUP | ||
Samtse |
Nangladang |
FMPUP |
13 032 |
131.96 |
FMPUP | |
Sarpang |
ChapleyKhola |
1998-2000 |
624 |
2 765 |
431.73 |
FMPUI |
Moga |
FMPUP |
- |
FMPUP | |||
Thimphu |
Chamgang-Helela |
1993-2002 |
4 694 |
13 000 |
634.98 |
FMPUI |
Gidakom |
1993-2002 |
13 000 |
15 000 |
N/A |
FMPUI | |
Changaphug |
FMPUP |
8 200 |
7 841 |
333.21 |
FMPUP | |
Trashi Yangtse |
Dongdeychhu |
443.26 |
FMPUI | |||
Trashigang |
Khaling-kharungla |
1996-2005 |
7 276 |
3 500 |
324.04 |
FMPUI |
Trongsa |
Chendebji |
1996-2006 |
9 707 |
7 000 |
145.65 |
FMPUI |
Khosela |
FMPUP |
13 200 |
138.11 |
FMPUP | ||
Tsirang |
Darechhu |
1993-95 |
1 268 |
2 112 |
N/A |
WSEXP |
Wangdue |
Kamichhu |
FMPUP |
9 280 |
131.09 |
FMPUP | |
Khotokha |
1997-2006 |
9 407 |
10 000 |
307.74 |
FMPUI | |
Nahi |
1993-2002 |
7 645 |
9 465 |
263.56 |
FMPUP | |
Zhemgang |
Mangdechhu |
FMPUP |
11 967 |
2 625 |
143.44 |
FMPUP |
Wangdigang |
1993-2002 |
9 620 |
6 900 |
N/A |
FMPUI | |
Total Area (FMPUP and FMPUI) |
226,815 |
Note. WS/FMPUI = Working Series/Plan Under Implementation, FMPUP =Plan Under Preparation, WSEXP = WS Expired, N/A = Not available. (Source: FRDS, RGOB).
All dzongkhags except three (Lhuentse, Gasa and Pemogatshel) have at least one forest management unit out of a total of 31 units. Working schemes in three units have been implemented and have expired while one plan is still operational. Forest management plans are in different stages of preparation for 13 units and are operational in 14 units . The total area under these 27 plans is about 226,815 ha. Table 9 provides information on area, plan period, prescribed annual allowable cut (AAC) and growing stock per hectare
Forest management has been promoting community involvement in resource management through social forestry programs since 1979. These programs are implemented as a separate program. The rationale of the program is that private tree planting reduces pressure on public forests. Households are encouraged to plant at least ten trees on their own registered land and about 2 million seedlings have been distributed to them. An evaluation of the program has revealed a low survival percentage of the planted trees.
Lack of new research information limits the efficiency of forest management plans. Bhutan has generated very little basic or applied research due to lack of financial and human resources. This has also affected the quality and efficiency of forest policy and long term planning. Further, the forestry research unit is not under the Forest Department and is located in an another agency (Research, Irrigation and Extension Division) under the renewable natural resources sector (Wangchuk, 1998).
Multilateral, bilateral and non-governmental organizations such as the World Bank, FAO, UNDP, ADC SDC, Helvetas, GTZ and SNV have included specific research components on forestry in their ongoing projects. However, the limited time span of many of these projects is not compatible with the long-term nature of forestry research. The government has taken some initiatives to provide long term support for forestry research. For example, Bhutan and the Netherlands have signed a long-term "sustainable development agreement" to collaborate on the conservation of biodiversity and community development in and around the protected areas. The Swiss Federal Institute of Technology continues its long-term decades-old association with Bhutan in the support of research in the renewable natural resources sector.
The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) looks after the "renewable natural resources" (RNR) sector, which includes forestry, nature conservation, national parks, livestock and agriculture. These are organized into three departments or divisions (Crop and Livestock, Research and Extension and Forestry) and two public sector corporations (Food Corporation of Bhutan and Forest Development Corporation).
Fig. 20. Departments and Corporations under the Ministry of Agriculture
The title of the department has been changed from the Forest Department to the Forest Services Division. The name of the functional forest divisions at headquarters has also been changed to forest sections. However, the name of the field units are same; for example, forest divisions. This report, however, uses "Forest Department" instead of "Forest Services Division" because most of the South Asian countries use this nomenclature.
The organizational structure of the Forest Department is hierarchical (Fig. 21). The Department is headed by the senior most forester with the designation of Joint Secretary (JS). He is supported by a "Technical Coordination" unit and four functional sections at headquarters, and divisional forest officers (DFOs) and project managers (PM's) in the field. The four technical sections are (a) Forest Resources Development Section (FRDS), (b) Nature Conservation Section (NCS), (c) Social Forestry and Afforestation Section (SFAS), and (d) Forest Policy. The PMs are also like field DFOs and take technical direction from the JS through the NCS. The field DFOs take technical direction from the JS through the FRDS, SFAS and FPLUS.
Forest Services Division
Fig. 21. Organizational structure of Forest Department (Service Division)
DFOs are supported by the Forest Range Officers, who in turn supervise the work of Forest Block Officers (FBO) and Village Forest Guards (VFG). Figure 22 presents this part of the hierarchical structure of the Forest Department.
Fig. 22. Forest organization below DFOs
The main problem across all the climatic zones in Bhutan is the localized overuse of forest resources. The key issue in forest planning of Bhutan is how to address the macro level needs of the state (equity, sustainability and revenue) and micro level satisfaction from forest resources in a sustainable manner with limited available resources. The patterns of local forest conditions and use have become more complex due to macro level needs to harvest forest resources for augmenting national revenues and the issue of centralized against decentralized control and authority of forest resources. Firewood extraction, shifting cultivation, improved pastures, and water and wildlife conservation harvesting are some of the current issues of sustainability.
The National Forest Policy of Bhutan, 1991 seeks to ensure that resources contribute both to social justice and equity and are sustainably used and managed . The policy directs that the goal of environmental conservation should override financial considerations. The Forest and Nature Conservation Act of 1995 defines the objectives of forest planning and asks for an approved forest management plan for each reserved forest in Bhutan and especially for logging areas. Forest management planning has undergone major transformation in structure, technique and content in order to implement direction of the Forest Policy of 1991 and the Forest and Nature Conservation Act of 1995. Inadequate research information and human resource capacity limits understanding of the problems and the opportunities offered by the forest resources. Further, the Forest Department needs capacity development to cover all the operable forest areas uner forest management plans.
