ANNEXURES (contd.)

Annexure 29

MANAGEMENT OF INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS IN THE RURAL SECTOR

V. Gopalakrishnan
FAO Project Manager
P.O. Box 350034, Chilanga, Zambia.

Paper Presented to ICLARM/GTZ-Malawi Fisheries Department University of Malawi International Conference on Research for the Development of Tropical Aquaculture Technology Appropriate for Implementation in Rural Africa, Chancellor College, Zomba, Malawi, 2–6 April 1990.

Abstract

The aquaculture development programmes in Zambia are directed towards three target groups viz., commercial farmers, emergent farmers and peasant farmers. The rural sector approach in this context is applicable to emergent and peasant farmers. Management practices have been worked out and tested by FAO executed projects in Zambia (funded by FAO, UNDP, and Netherlands TF) for developing integrated fish farming systems in different parts of the country. Among the fish-animal husbandry systems, those using fish-cum-pigs, fish-cum-ducks and fish-cum-chickens have yielded impressive results. These projects have successfully demonstrated that fish yields between 3.5 and 7.0 tons/ha/yr can be achieved under varying local conditions with monoculture of Oreochromis andersonii. The management methods adopted are described, followed by observations on fish-cum-crops and fish-cum-crops-cum-animal husbandry practices. A strategy for small scale fish farming, tentatively named ‘Ziba’ programme, is also presented.

INTRODUCTION

The farming systems concept aims at developing farm-household systems and rural communities for all round benefits. Having accepted the fact that land is generally a valuable and sometimes scarce resource, the multipurpose use of the same for crop, animal and fish production will have to be based on proper planning and management. Land evaluation leads to possible farm systems criteria for production of crops, vegetables, livestock, poultry and fish. The feasibility of combinations of farming and animal husbandry practices involving fish and animal production; crops and fish; and crops, fish and animal production in order to achieve maximum sustainable benefits leads to successful integrated fish farming. Under such conditions, available natural resources need to be efficiently utilized and recycled in order to increase and maintain the overall production rate. In determining management principles of integrated fish farming systems, the technical efficiency of different farming combinations and economic feasibility need to be properly understood.

Recent studies conducted in Zambia have successfully demonstrated the technical and economic feasibility of integrated fish farming using the local tilapia, Oreochromis andersonii (Gopalakrishnan, 1988). It is generally accepted that integration of crops, animals and fish is more efficient under rural conditions than crop-livestock systems (Spliethoff, 1988). Animal wastes directly raise food production in fish ponds. Large but irregular addition of animal wastes may result in high but not uniform fish growth, while regular and frequent addition of the same quantity of wastes can yield more balanced fish production (Little and Muir, 1987). Thus, one of the important pre-requisites for successful integrated fish-cum-animal farming is standardization of management practices in order to balance the manure production/addition with the nutritional requirements of the stocked fish. While general pond management practices for integrated fish arming are more or less similar to conventional fish culture in ponds, fish-cum-animal husbandry combinations may demand specialized management decisions resulting from a combination of factors. It is in this context that FAO executed aquaculture development projects in Zambia have been conducting trials in three demonstration-cum-training fish farms established in three widely separated stations viz., Chilanga, Chipata and Mwekera.

Fish farming operations in Zambia may be categorized into three groups viz., those belonging to; (i) Peasant farmers, (ii) Emergent farmers and (iii) Commercial farmers.

In considerations involving development of integrated fish arming in the rural sector of Zambia, the first two types of farmers are normally considered as more important target groups. The present account is basically devoted to the emergent farmers, under which category small-scale fish farming is being attempted by a large number of persons anxious to develop their rural holdings. Among this group of farmers are included those who have retired from urban areas, educated unemployed who for various reasons have already gone back to their land or are being encouraged to do so, agriculture and livestock farmers who are engaged in developing their rural holdings and are taking up fish farming as an additional food production enterprise, and those who are employed but take up fish farming as extra income-earning proposition.

INTEGRATED FISH FARMING IN ZAMBIA

Details of integrated fish farming using Oreochromis andersonii in fish-cum-pig and fish-cum-duck systems have been described elsewhere (Gopalakrishnan, 1988). Modest fish production averages estimated for these systems are between 4 and 6 tons/ha/yr for the former and between 3.5 and 4.5 tons/ha/yr for the latter.

Fish-Cum-Pig-System

Through a number of trials a fish production system with pig husbandry has been successfully demonstrated under Zambia conditions. Raising of tilapia and pigs together has been found to be technically and economically viable (L'Heureux, 1985; Gopalakrishnan, 1986). The pigs attain slaughter maturity in 5–6 months' time and this works well with the 2-cycles per year cultivation of O. andersonii. The general pond management methods relating to selection of land, clearance of unwanted fish and weeds, stocking of fish and maintenance of fish health and pond sanitation have been standardized, based on general pond culture methods.

Raising pigs:

Pig houses. Pigsty can be built on stilts over the pond water, with the floor 1 m above normal water level or on the pond dykes. If the sty is over water, the excreta fall directly into the pond and any remains within the shed can be washed down easily. When the sty is on the dyke, the droppings will have to be washed down into the pond.

The size of the pigsty may be based on a rate of 90 pigs.ha and 1.5 m² in shed per pig.

The commercial pigs in Zambia are crosses between Landrace and Large White. Pig weaners are generally introduced at 20 to 25 kg and fattened to app. 100 kg live weight. General pig feeding guidelines are given in Table 1 ^1].

1] Unpublished project report by E. Cayron-Thomas, Chilanga Fish Farm.

Table 1: Feeding rate for pigs 20–100 kg live

Table 2: Fry/fingerling production of O. andersonii in 2,000m² breeding pond operation as Integrated System with ducks

* Continuing

Fish-Cum-Duck System

Raising of ducks over fish ponds is being practiced in several countries and the beneficial effects are well known. The system is generally considered to be viable and sound, and although the mutual benefits are rather complex, the combination increases the production of both fish and ducks and decreases considerably the cost of fish arming operations. However, the selection of the type of duck will depend on particular situations and the target group. The FAO project in Zambia initially did trials with Muscovy ducks, which were found to be not suitable for integrated fish farming systems. Hence further trials were made using the Peking duck. The studies made showed that O. andersonii and Peking duck combination works wyuite well with appreciable economic returns. This type of integrated system is now being followed by commercial and emergent farmers.

Raising Peking Ducks:

The broodstock resting shed should have sufficient space at the rate of 2 birds per square metre, excluding drinking and feeding areas. Before the egg laying season, the broodstock may be kept during night in semi darkness. During this period they may be given fattening food having 13–15% protein content. Chicken layers mash (containing app. 0% protein) may be mixed with maize grains, at a ratio of 3:2. This type of food can be given during moulting time also.

During the egg laying period, the illumination should be increased gradually, so that all parts of the pen may be lighted. An efficient way of providing more illumination is to increase the lighting periods. Simultaneously feed also may be changed to layers mash, enriched with blood meal, meat or fish meal. One hundred kg of chicken layers mash may be mixed with 1 kg meat meal or 2 kg fish meal. About one month after the start of the illumination and feeding with layers mash, the ducks start laying eggs. Ample drinking water should be provided in the pen during nights. Overcrowding can affect egg laying and also result in more broken eggs.

The nests: Nests measuring 30 cm × 30 cm may be built alongside the walls. The nests should be kept clean and lined with grass or straw, which should be changed every fortnight.

Feeding of broodstock: The breeding ducks may be fed during the day at a place near the fish pond, at the rate 200g/duck/day. It is better to give the feed 2 or 3 times per day, in equal instalments.

Collection and storage of eggs: The eggs are collected every morning. They must be handled very carefully, because they are structurally weak. It would be advisable to keep the eggs in baskets and then stored in a room where the temperature is below 20°C. They can thus be stored for a maximum of 6 days. If the temperature of the room is high, the storage period should be reduced to 1–3 days. During storage the eggs should be stored with the “air chamber” upwards, i.e., the pointed end downwards. it is advisable to keep the eggs outside the incubator room.

Incubation: The incubation of duck eggs is different from that of chicken eggs. The incubation temperature is 38–39°C (99–101°F).

First week: The eggs do not need aeration and are normally kept at the bottom of the incubator. They need turning at least twice a day. At the end of one week, infertile and dead eggs are removed.

Second week: The eggs need cooling twice a day. The trays are taken out of the incubator and kept outside for about 10 minutes. At this time they may be turned. Then they are sprayed with water. At the end of second week, they are checked again and those with dead embryos should be taken out of the incubator room.

Third week: The eggs should now be cooled for about 15 minutes thoroughly with water. If the spraying is not adequate, the eggs may get stuck inside the shell and die. These eggs are now placed higher inside the incubator. At the end of the week, the dead eggs are removed and taken out of the room.

Fourth week: For the first three days management practices will be the same as during the third week. On the 24th day, the eggs are transferred to the hatching trays. Now these eggs need not be cooled, but they require more frequent spraying.

The ducklings hatch between the 26th and 28th day and should be kept in the incubator until dry and then transferred to special duckling cages.

Incubator cleaning: The trays should be cleaned regularly with any good disinfectant like 1–2% formalin, immediately after use. The incubator should be cleaned and disinfected every month.

Raising the ducklings:

First week: The day-old ducklings should be kept in a warm cage with temperature of 29–31°C during 1–3 days and 23–26°C during 4–7 days. Chicken lamps (Infra red lamps) are used for heating the cages. The cage spacing is 30 ducklings/metre². The floor of the cage may be littered with maize bran or saw dust from soft wood. The cages should be kept illuminated during nights:

Feeding: The ducklings start feeding 6 to 12 hours after they hatch out. The feeding rate is given below:

Lime stone grit may be added to the feed, which provides calcium to the ducklings. Fresh green vegetable matter also may be added as a source of vitamins. There should be no restriction in the amount of feed.

Water: Adequate drinking water is an essential prerequisite for successful duckling raising. The young birds cannot eat properly if they do not drink water at frequent intervals. The feeding area may be at least 1 m away from the water container. Sufficient water must be available for the ducklings for splashing also. They should be able to splash around in water as soon as possible after the first week. Under favourable weather conditions they should be taken to the splashing pools 15–20 cm deep. If the air temperature is too low, they should be kept inside the cages.

Ducklings during second week are less sensitive to weather conditions, but the temperature inside the shed should not drop below 18°C during nights. It is necessary for them to get accustomed to water at this stage in order to induce development of the oil glands. Drinking water and feed should be provided during nights also. Average food consumption rate at this stage is as follows:

Shed space: During the second and third weeks of their growth, the ducklings need more space, app.1 m² for 5 ducklings.

Raising meat ducks in fish ponds: Generally three week-old ducklings can be introduced into fish production ponds. A constant number of ducks, preferably 500 birds/ha, has been found ideal under Zambian conditions. However, during the cold months the number of ducks should be reduced to 250/ha.

Feeding: The ducks are fed on the dykes. Since they will have access to natural sources of proteins and vitamins in the ponds, like snails, frogs, grass etc. the feed may be 50% Broiler finisher and 50% whole maize at the following rates:

For general management purposes it would be easier to use the following feeding rate when ducks of different age are grouped together:

When 8 weeks old, the meat ducks should reach an average of 2.5 kg. As far as possible they should be sold when 8–10 weeks old. In order to avoid competition for feeding, the ducks should be segregated in different ponds according to age. For example, 3 to 5 weeks-old ducks may be kept together in one pond and 6 to 9 weeks-old ones in another pond.

Fish-Cum-Chicken System

A chicken run can be built either directly above the fish pond or on the embankment. Droppings from 25 to 30 birds may be enough to fertilize a 500 m² pond. If chicken manure is stored and then distributed in the pond, the rate of application may be 2.5 to 5 kg per 100 m² per day or 17.5 to 35 kg per 500 m² per week. Summary of fish production results obtained from a 500 m² pond operated by a private emergent farmer in Chipata using chicken manure as fertilizer is given below:

Summary of costs and revenue (records made available for 1st season ^1])

1] Unpublished project report by A. J. Rothuis, Chipata Fish Farm.

Other farming systems incorporating fish farming:

Other combinations of integrated fish farming systems considered for development in Zambia include:

1. Crops and fish, involving tilapia and terrestrial crops and tilapia and rice.

2. Crops, fish and other animal, involving tilapia, carp, pig, goat, rabbit, duck, chicken, vegetables, fruits, legumes, grass, etc.

While the general advantages of such systems are well known, detailed field trials are yet to be undertaken in Zambia. Limited studies have demonstrated the usefulness of wastes from vegetable and crop fields in the production of compost for direct use or charging in cribs. A few private rural enterprises based on such complex systems have been established, but precise results have not yet been made available. In some cases growing of tomato and potato in drained fish ponds for one season after three or four years has been reported to boost subsequent fish production rates. The silt removed from the project ponds have always been used by the workers in adjoining maize fields with good fertilizing effect. It would be well worthwhile if standardised management practices, as applicable to the rural sector, are worked out for such applications. Inter-cropping involving cultivation of water plants and algae in ponds is another potential field for investigations. With the recent increase in rice cultivation in the country, interest has been shown by many projects to develop fish culture in paddy fields. The basic principles in this system have been discussed with the concerned project authorities, but field trials are yet to be taken up.

Integrated Tilapia Breeding Pond

As a component of a project to establish a pilot tilapia seed production and distribution centre in Chilanga, a semi-intensive earthen breeding pond system has been developed (Cayron-Thomas, 1986). This 2,000 m² pond is operated as an integrated system using Peking ducks broodstock. A gravel filter is provided for the feeder canal to prevent wild fish entering the breeding complex. About 25% of the water area is fenced to confine the duck broodstock (Fig.1). Oreochromis andersonii broodstock are stocked in this pond during the beginning of the season, between August and October. The fry/fingerlings are harvested regularly using 6 mm knotless ace-mesh net. The interval between two seining days is generally kept as a fortnight. The stocking rate is 30 fish per 100 m² in the ratio 1(M) : 4 (F).

Fig. 1
Peking Ducks in fenced area of Breeding Pond

In this integrated system, the rate of fry production has been satisfactory as will be seen in Table 2. However it appears that the fry production rate is gradually decreasing and hence action has been taken to develop a new broodfish stock.

Based on the performance of this Integrated fish-cum-duck system for production of fish seed, a recommendation has been made for the establishment of such fish seed centres in different parts of the country. ideally each such centre should be 1 ha in area, to be developed as indicated below:

The remaining area may be used for production of table size fish. The production ponds will help in the selection of broodstock at the beginning of each season and also for additional revenue. This type of complex will be able to provide a minimum of 200,000 tilapia fry/fingerlings during each breeding season.

The Ziba Programme

For the purpose of developing a standardised management programme aimed at fish farming operations in the rural area, a new “ZIBA” programme has been worked out by the FAO/GRZ/NETT Fish Culture Development project. The main objective of this programme is to promote establishment of small-scale fish farming operations in the rural areas of Zambia and encourage integrated fish culture with raising of pigs, ducks, chicken, etc., and growing of crops, vegetables etc.

The “ZIBA”

The name “ZIBA” denotes a fish pond of area 500 m². this size has been found to be suitable for development by emergent farmers in the rural areas, where labour is available for digging the fish ponds.

Guidelines prepared for the “ZIBA” programme are summarized below:

Guidelines for construction:

Embankment: 3 to 5 m at the bottom and 1 m wide at top

Minimum depth at shallow end : 50 to 70 cm

Maximum depth at deepest end : 120 to 150 cm

Estimated earth movement : 200 to 300 m³

Selection of site: The ZIBA should be near a stream, spring or canal or in marshy ground where the water in the soil will fill up the pond. The soil at the chosen site should have sufficient clay to hold water. Bad soil with sand or gravel will not stick together and so will not hold water. A test hole about 1 m deep may be dug at the site to test the soil column. If the soil samples from the surface to bottom of the hole are good (sand or gravel not present), then the site may be considered suitable for pond construction.

The topography of the site should be such that minimum earth digging and movement will be involved. It would be advisable to fill the test hole with water and observe the water retention capacity. The total volume of water available during the year will be one of the limiting factors in fish farming. Approximate calculations made for conditions existing in Zambia are:

The total water requirement for 1 “ZIBA” under good soil conditions for 1 year:

Amount of water needed to fill the pond: 500 m³ × 2 = 1,000 m³

Amount of water needed to compensate for seepage and evaporation losses: 2,800 m³. Total =3,800m³.

Inlet structure: Water may be taken into the pond through a furrow 10 to 20 cm deep and 30 cm wide. A screen made of any suitable material may be provided at the place of entry into the pond. If feasible, a small wooden box with mesh bottom may be fixed just under the inlet opening in order to collect wild fish and other undesirable items flowing in.

Outlet structure: An outlet pipe of 10 to 15 cm diameter may be fixed at the deepest part of the pond, across the embankment. The pipe may be of any suitable material (even bamboo) and should have a simple closing mechanism.

Overflow: In order to avoid the embankment getting damaged by flooding, a simple overflow gutter or pipe may be provided. This facility should also have a screen.

Stocking: The best fish for stocking is the three-spotted bream locally known as ‘Njinji’ (Oreochromis andersonii). The stocking rate should be app. 1,250 to 1,500 fish per “ZIBA”, the average weight of a fingerling being between 10 and 20 g.

Manuring: In order to make more food in the pond water for better fish growth, the pond must be fertilized. This can be done by adding compost. A crib (cage) may be built with bamboo or other wooden poles in the shallow part of the pond, on one side of the inlet. The crib may be filled with animal manure and leaves in alternative layers or ready-made compost. The water in the pond will become green, which indicates the presence of more natural food in the pond. About five buckets of compost (or 5 to 8 buckets of manure and green matter) may be added in the crib every week. Chicken manure is a very good fertilizer in the fish pond.

Fish -cum-animal husbandry: In order to obtain much higher fish production, pigs, ducks or chicken are grown in conjunction with the fish pond. In this system the animal wastes fall directly into the water and act as manure as well as feed for the fish. The ideal number of pigs for a “ZIBA” is 4. The pigsty may be built with local timber and fixed on stilts above the water surface. In case of ducks, the ideal number is 25 and the duck house may be built on the embankment. During day time the ducks will swim in the pond and feed on insect larvae, tadpoles, snails and a few types of aquatic plants. Thus they do not compete with the fish for food. Additional feeding necessary for the ducks may be done on the embankment. During night time ducks may be kept secured inside the house. The droppings collected from the duck house may be thrown into the pond at intervals. In the case where chicken manure is applied, 25 to 30 chicken may be necessary to fertilize the “ZIBA”. However, the actual number will depend on the condition of the pond water and the number of birds will have to be adjusted with experience.

Taking care of the fish: If any dead fish is found floating on the pond, the same may be removed immediately. If the fish are seen coming to the water surface gasping for air, stop adding manure in the pond for a few days and the pond water may be changed at least partly. For this, the water level may be reduced daily and fresh water added immediately. Such replacement of water may be carried out until normal conditions return.

Fish growing period: Under normal conditions the three-spotted bream will b ready for harvesting in about 6 months. Thus, two growing cycles will be possible in each “ZIBA” during one year.

DISCUSSION

The programmes undertaken by FAO/UNDP/NET/GRZ Fish Culture Development Projects in Zambia have succeeded in demonstrating the technical and economic feasibility of integrated fish farming in Zambia, especially at the levels of commercial and emergent fish farmers, provided correct management practices are adopted. (Gopalakrishnan, 1986; 1988). The technologies introduced by the project are suitable for application in different parts of the country, but adequate care should be taken in developing strategies for implementation in the rural sector.

Considerable interest has been stimulated in the development of fish farming in the country and it would be necessary to follow rigidly the basic criteria stipulated for successful establishment of fish ponds and judicious management practices. The integrated fish-animal husbandry systems tested by the project are suitable for adoption in different parts of the country, subject to local adjustments based on consumer preferences and socioeconomic factors. However, one serious constraint for further development is shortage of quality fish seed. In order to overcome this deficiency and to facilitate rapid development of the systems, it is essential that fish seed production and distribution centres are set up in all Government and private fish farms. For the present at least, these centres should concentrate on breeding and rearing of Oreochromis andersonii.

Among the fish-animal husbandry systems so far tested by the project, the fish-cum-pig operations have yielded best results (Gopalakrishnan, 1988). This has been confirmed by results obtained from private fish farms also. Fresh pig manure is known to maintain a high rate of primary productivity and the management methods in this integrated system must always allow flexibility for keeping the nutrient level within acceptable limits (Woynarovich, 1979). Thus the number of pigs raised per unit area of pond will have to be adjusted according to the location and season. The natural food chain in the fish pond is known to be sensitive to changes in climate and waste inputs and hence the importance of proper management decisions cannot be over-emphasized (Little and Muir, 1987). The design of integrated animal-fish units and the formulation of animal feeds are considered as key factors in determining productivity and profitability (Delmando, 1980).

As regards rearing fish and ducks together, the advantages of the system are widely known. (Woynarovich, 1979; Pullin and Shehadeh, 1980; Edwards, 1986). The Peking duck has been successfully integrated in fish culture operations in Zambia. However, the fact that the female Peking duck does not sit over the eggs for incubation appears to have contributed to certain reservations regarding suitability of the system under rural conditions. This may be true to a certain extent as far as peasant farmers are concerned, but as has already been indicated, the class of emergent farmers taking up fish farming in Zambia's rural sector will have to be considered in a different perspective. Many of the farmers are engaged in small-scale chicken raising operations, for which they get supplies of one-day old birds from hatcheries. Likewise, there is need to establish state-run and private duck hatcheries in order to increase supply of ducklings to emergent farmers, co-operative, schools, youth-clubs etc. Discussions held with commercial farmers indicate that they may be able to expand their operations in order to supply ducklings to small scale operators. Many emergent farmers are located in peri-urban situations and they have transport arrangements to urban centres to procure supplies as well as sell farm produce.

It is also interesting to note that some peasant fish farmers keep Peking duck eggs under hens or Muscovy ducks for successful incubation. Another interesting observation made is that rearing Peking ducks along with Muscovy ducks may result in the former stock developing natural incubation habit. Further investigations in this direction are considered worthwhile.

In the management of integrated fish-cum-duck systems, the advantages of the “symbiotic” relationship of duck and fish must be kept in mind ^1]. High fish production from this system depends on basic productivity of pond, stocking density and food habits of the stocked fish (Woynarovich, 1979).

Chicken manure is widely recognised as an efficient fertilizer in fish ponds. A large percentage of undigested food can be present in chicken excreta and up to 5% of the manure applied in fish pond is known to be converted to fish food. Several instances of fish-cum-chicken farming have been initiated in Zambia and fish production rates have generally been good. The most important management action taken in this respect is adjustment of manure application according to climatic conditions and ecology of the fish pond. A proper balancing of skills in fish and chicken rearing is necessary and the fish culture extension worker is expected to educate the farmer in this aspect.

Concerning integration of crops, vegetables and other plants with fish cultivation, the excellent nutritional effect of mill sweepings in increasing fish growth has been demonstrated at the Chipata fish farm. Further work on this aspect is in progress at the Mwekera fish farm also. The important issues to be considered in the management of integrated fish farming with terrestrial plants are the high food conversion ratio, accumulation of residues in the pond, toxic substances, slow decomposition rate and the complex nature of the system itself.

^1] Integrated management of fish-cum-duck farming-its efficiency and revenue. Hu Bao-Tong and Yang Hua-zhu. Wuxi. (Mimeo).

REFERENCES

1. Cayron-Thomas, E. 1986. Development of the pilot fish seed production and distribution centre, Chilanga. FAO/TCP Project Field Document 2, FI: TCP/ZAM/4405 (A). (Mimeo).

2. Delmando, M.N. 1980. A review of integrated livestock-fowl-fish farming systems, p 59–71. In R.S.V. Pullin and Z.H. Shehadeh (eds). Integrated agriculture-aquaculture farming systems, ICLARM Conference Proceedings 4. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, and Southeast Asian Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture, College, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines.

3. Edwards, P. (1985). Duck/fish integrated farming systems, p 267–291. In D.J. Farrell and P. Stapleton (eds). Duck Production Science and World Practice, University of New England, Armidale, Australia.

4. Gopalakrishnan, V. 1986. Fish culture development in Zambia. Report prepared for the Republic of Zambia. FAO/UNDP. (Mimeo).

5. Gopalakrishnan, V. 1988. Role of tilapia (Oreochromis andersonii) in integrated farming systems in Zambia, p. 21–28. In R.S.V. Pullin, T. Bhukaswan, K. Tonguthai and J.L. Maclean (eds). The second International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 15, 623p. Department of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines.

6. L'Heureux, R. 1985. Economic feasibility of fish culture in Zambia. FAO Report. TCP/ZAM/4405 (A).

7. Little, D. and J. Muir. 1987. A guide to integrated warm water aquaculture, 238p. Institute of Aquaculture Publications, University of Stirling, Scotland.

8. Pullin, R.S.V. and Z.H. Shehadeh, Editors, 1980. Integrated agriculture-aquaculture farming systems, ICLARM Conference Proceedings 4. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, and Southeast Asian Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture, College, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines.

9. Spliethoff, P.C. (1988). Integrated fish farming in tropical countries. 170p. IAC Wageningen, the Netherlands.

10. Woynarovich, E. (1979). The feasibility of combining animal husbandry with fish farming with special reference to duck and pig production, p203–208. In T.V.R. Pillay and W.A. Dill (eds). Advances in Aquaculture, Fishing News Books Ltd., Farnham, Surrey. England.

Annexure 30

THE INVOLVEMENT OF WOMEN AND THE NUTRITIONAL STATUS AT THE FISHCULTURE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
(GCP/ZAM/038/NET)

FINDINGS

1. Despite the growing interest in gender related issues in Zambia, women are still disadvantage in many fields.

2. The Fishculture Development Project has recently expressed interest in the involvement of women in fishculture. A workshop on ‘Women in fishculture’ has been organized for female project staff; female extension workers are taken out on extension; and the Project staff is actively trying to involve wives of farmers during extension.

3. However both male agricultural and fishculture extension workers easily forget and ignore the involvement of women.

4. Women fishfarmers are very rare in Zambia, whereas female headed households are very common. Several constraints appear to withhold them from taking up fish farming. Special studies into the needs and constraints of female headed households are needed. However, the present Fishculture Development Project does at the moment not dispose of resources to take such studies.

   The future Project should include such programmes in the workplan.

5. Women fishscouts have problems in their work that are related to their sex. However, most problems appeared to be the same as those of their male colleagues.

6. The school fishpond in Shantumbu has raised great enthusiasm among teachers, pupils and people living in the neighbourhood. It is clear that school fish ponds are a very good way of promoting fish farming among a large section of the population.

7. The Workshop organized by the Project for lady fishscouts has been successful. Findings and recommendations from the participants can be found in the annex: Report on the workshop ‘Women in fishculture’.

8. The nutrition status of Zambia has worsened over the past years. Although Zambia is now self sufficient for staple foods, some areas face severe shortage and nutritional problems at the individual household level exist throughout the country.

9. Fishculture, and especially integrated fishculture can contribute to an improvement of the individual household food security.

10. It is not very likely that fish farming can have a significant impact on the nutritional status of an entire area.

11. The Project has substantially contributed to the development of fish farming in Zambia. The nutritional impact of the Project has, however, never been monitored.

12. The nutrition status of the survey area seems to be relatively good, as compared to the rest of Zambia.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. To achieve more awareness on the importance of involvement of women in fish culture among fishscouts and other fishculture staff (Aquaculturists, Provincial Fishculturists, etc.), they be trained and given information on this specific subject, either through special short courses, or an an intem in a regular (technical) training course. This also applies for Agricultural Extension Officers who are trained in fishculture. These courses can be given for both men and women, with occaisionally a special course for women staff only.

2. Women's issues be incorporated in the curriculum of training institutions and colleges that educates fishculture and agriculture extension staff.

3. The total number of women working in fishculture in Zambia be increased, and the Project be deputed more women extension staff by the Government of Zambia.

4. More women staff be involved in extension activities, particularly field work.

5. Ways and means should be established to give due attention to women fish farmers.

6. Both the farmer and his wife be involved from the beginning in fishculture extension work, and the sharing of the work and the benefits be discussed with them. Wives of farmers be educated in fishculture together with the husband.

7. Women fishculture staff be equally considered for promotion; promotion chances for fishscouts be created and for promotion not only education, but also good performance be considered.

8. School fish ponds be promoted by the Government and the Project and special attention be given to these ponds in extension work. Educational material be provided by the Project, that should include involvement of women and create especially more interest among girl students.

9. Before taking up a new Project area, the major food and nutrition problems of the area be established, and groups at risk be identified.

10. Discussions on how the benefits of fish farming can be used to improve the household food security be held with the farmer and his wife.

11. An extra staff member, with training in nutrition and extension be attached to the Project.

12. Contacts with the National Commission on Aquaculture and Human Nutrition be renewed, and cooperation with the Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme be improved, so that ideas can be exchanged, that all parties are informed on each other's activities and that activities can be coordinated if necessary.

REPORT OF THE WORKSHOP

“WOMEN IN FISH CULTURE”

for lady Fishscouts

Summary

The workshop “Women in Fishculture” for lady fishscouts was organized by the “Fishculture Development Project” GZP/ZAM/038/NET, and held in Chilanga from 17–20 April 1990.

It has been for the first time that a workshop on this subject and solely for women fishscouts took place in Zambia.

The participants were given general information on the position of women in Zambia, in order to be able to define their own social position.

The participants listed and analysed the problems that are special for women fishscouts, and where possible came up with workable solutions.

The active involvement of women in fishculture extension was discussed, and practised by role playing.

Anticipating changes in the Project, with possibly more attention for nutrition and socio-economic aspects, the fishscouts were trained in executing Questionnaires and doing field studies, and had a discussion on the relationship of fishculture and human nutrition and the consequences of including nutritional concerns in the Project.

Annexure 31

AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL IN SMALL RESERVOIRS OF ZAMBIA

By

V. Gopalakrishnan
FAO Fish Culture Development Project
P.O. Box 350034, Chilanga Zambia

SUMMARY

Little information only is available at present regarding the fishery development potential of small reservoirs in Zambia, which are scattered throughout the country. Three types of aquaculture development operations viz., extensive culture, culture-based fisheries and cage and pen culture are the options available depending on local ecological and socio-economic conditions. The fishery development implications in these water bodies have been considered by examining a few case studies. They include the Chilanga dam system which is associated with three fish farm complexes, two private farms with reservoirs and some private small reservoirs stocked with Oreochromis andersonii. Information available on the small reservoirs in Southern Province and Eastern Province are presented. Possibility exists for taking up pilot scale aquaculture operations in some of the new communal reservoirs in Southern Province. In the Eastern Province, the FAO/UNDP Fish Culture Development Project has surveyed 34 dams/reservoirs out of which 18 appear to have reasonable potential for aquaculture development. The oxbow lakes in Western Province also have good potential for development of aquaculture projects. As a pre-requisite for large-scale aquaculture development in small water bodies of Zambia, the production potential need to be studied and assessed through pilot programmes in selected types of reservoirs.

Paper presented at the Symposium on the Development and Management of Fisheries in Small Water Bodies; Committee for Inland Fisheries in Africa, Seventh Session, 7–11 December 1987, Accra, Ghana.

Annexure 32

FAO/GRZ FISH CULTURE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT
GCP/ZAM/038/NET
P.O. BOX 350034
CHILANGA - ZAMBIA

A new ‘ZIBA’ Programme for the Rural Sector in Zambia

GUIDELINES

Fish farming operations in Zambia may be categorized into 3 groups, viz.:

1. Village or Family fish ponds
2. Small scale fish farms (up to 5 ha)
3. Commercial fish farms (above 5 ha)

With a view to launch an intensive programme to develop village level fish culture operations coming under the first category, a new ‘ZIBA’ programme has been worked out by the FAO/GRZ Fish Culture Development Project based at Chilanga, Chipata and Mwekera (near Kitwe). The basic aims of this programme are to promote establishment of family level fish ponds in villages and encourage integrated fish culture with growing of pigs or ducks or chickens and agriculture operations.

THE ‘ZIBA’ (pond)

A fish pond is not just an excavation on the ground. It must be constructed properly after selecting a suitable site, with favourable soil conditions and adequate water supply.

Area of 1 ZIBA: 500m²

This size has been found to be economically suitable for the rural sector, where labour is generally available for digging the pond. The cost of construction of the pond with inlet and outlet structures may very from K450 to K1,500 depending on the locality and type of labour available.

       1st year running costs - K500.00*
Additional cost of Integrated Farming facilities:
       Construction: K200 – K400.00
       Cost of pigs/ducks for 1 year: K200.00
Anticipated fish production:
       By Manuring: 100kg in 1 year
       By Integrated Farming:200kg in 1 year

When negotiating credit facilities for the ZIBA programme, the first 2 years should be considered as non-profit period and repayment instalments may start from the 3rd year onwards. The total loan repayment period should be at least 5 years.

* Rates before devaluation.

GUIDELINES FOR CONSTRUCTION

Embankment: 3 to 5 metres at the bottom and
                        1 metre wide at the top
Minimum depth at shallow end: 50 to 70 cm
Maximum depth at deepest end: 120 to 150 cm
Estimated earth movement: 200 to 300m³

The Kwacha figures may be taken for indications and comparison purposes only.

Selection of site

The ZIBA should be near a stream, a spring, a canal or in marshy ground where the water in the soil will fill up the pond. The soil in the place chosen should have sufficient clay to hold water. Bad soil with sand or gravel in it will not stick together and so will not hold water. A test hole about 1 m deep may be dug at the site to test the soil column. If the soil samples from the surface and bottom of the hole are good and sand or gravel is not present, then the area may be considered suitable, provided the water supply also is good. A golden rule to remember: The total amount of water available during the year will be one of the main limiting factors in fish farming.

The total water requirement for 1 ZIBA under GOOD SOIL CONDITIONS for 1 year:
Amount of water needed to fill the pond = 500m³ × 2 = 1,000m³
Amount of water needed to compensate for seepage and evaporation losses = 2,800m³.

Inlet structure. Water may be taken into the pond through a furrow 10 to 20 cm deep and 30 cm wide. A screen made of any suitable material may be provided at the place of entry into the pond.

Outlet. An outlet pipe of 10 to 15 cm diameter may be fixed at the deepest part of the pond, across the embankment. The pipe may be of any suitable material (even bamboo) and should have a simple closing mechanism.

Overflow. In order to avoid the embankment getting damaged by flooding, a simple overflow gutter or pipe may be provided to allow excess water to flow out of the pond. This overflow facility should also be provided with a screen.

Stocking. The best fish for stocking is the 3--spotted bream (‘Njinji’) -Oreochromis andersonii. The stocking rate should be approx. 1,250 to 1,500 per ZIBA (500m²), the average weight of a fingerling being between 10 and 20g.

MANURING

To make more food in the water for the fish, the pond must be fertilized. This can be done by adding compost. A crib (cage) may be built with bamboo or other wooden poles in the shallow part of the pond. This crib may be filled with animal manure and leaves in alternate layers or ready made compost. The water in the pond will become green, which indicates presence of more natural food in the pond. About 5 buckets of compost (or 5–8 buckets manure and green matter) may be added in the crib every week. Chicken manure is a very good fertilizer for the fish pond.

INTEGRATED FISH FARMING

In integrated fish farming, pigs or ducks or chickens are grown in conjunction with the fish pond. In this system the animal wastes fall into the water and act as manure and feed for the fish. The ideal number of pigs for a ZIBA is 4. The pigsty may be built with local timber and fixed on stilts above the water surface. in the case of ducks, the ideal number is 25 and the duck house may be built on the embankment. During day time the ducks will swim in the pond and feed on larvae of aquatic insects, tadpoles, molluses and a few varieties of aquatic weeds. Thus they do not compare food with the fish. Additional feeding necessary for the ducks may be done on the embankment. During night time the ducks may be kept secured inside the house. The droppings collected from the duck house may be thrown into the pond at intervals. Droppings from 50 to 150 chicken may be necessary to fertilize the pond. The actual number will depend on the condition of the pond water.

TAKING CARE OF THE FISH

If any dead fish is found floating in the pond, the same may be removed immediately. If the fish are seen coming to the water surface gasping for air, stop adding manure in the pond for a few weeks and the water in the pond may be changed at least partly. For this the inlet may be kept open for 2 to 3 hours daily for a few days until the fish are normal. The old water in the pond will drain out through the overflow during this operation.

FISH GROWING PERIOD

Under normal conditions the fish will be ready for harvesting in about 6 months. Thus 2 growing cycles will be possible in each ZIBA during 1 year.

Annexure 33

JOINT EVALUATION MISSION BY THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NETHERLANDS AND FAO
(June 1989)

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings and recommendations were presented by the Evaluation Mission to the Government of the Netherlands and FAO Representatives on 19 June 1989, in the presence of the Honourable Minister of Agriculture and Cooperatives and his senior staff. The Donor and FAO Representatives and the Government fully agreed with the Mission's findings and recommendations.

The main findings of the Mission are that:

1. There is considerable potential in Zambia for expansion of fish farming activities and production utilizing abundant natural resources. In rural areas small- and medium-scale fish farming, integrated with sustainable agricultural development, offer opportunities to increase local fish supplies considerably.

2. Present data clearly show an unsatisfied demand for fish, limitation of supplies from capture fisheries, import restrictions, a rapidly expanding population, a declining level of per caput fish consumption, resulting in a shortage of protein (especially for children and women in rural areas). There is clearly an opportunity to satisfy present and future national requirements for additional protein through an increasing contribution from fish farming.

3. Available data show a serious lack of protein in rural areas where the National Project operates. However, the nutritional impact of the project's activities in such areas has yet to be assessed.

4. The GCP/ZAM/038/NET “Fish Culture Development in Zambia” project is well managed. The project staff is very competent and highly motivated, in particular the Chief Technical Adviser, and is performing extremely well under conditions that are sometimes difficult.

5. The Chilanga, Chipata and Mwekera fish farms have been developed into viable operational production, demonstration and training centres.

6. The demand for tilapia fry is still much greater than the supply produced at each of the three project fish farms. Broodstock development and better management are required and are being undertaken at each farm. Theft of broodstock at the Mwekera fish farm seriously set-back fry production.

7. The Chipata fish farm solved its immediate water shortage problem through dredging and enlarging the water reservoir and by cleaning supply channels. However, the Chilanga fish farm still suffers from a lack of sufficient year-round water and this hinders production and training targets to be realised.

8. The economic viability of fish-cum-Peking duck farming is questioned. The intensive labour, specialised and expensive equipment, high quality feeds and management needed to produce ducks require economic study. The use of the locally available Muscovy duck in integrated fish farming should be considered.

9. There is a need to examine the basic economics of each farming system being used at the three project farms before advice is offered to rural farmers by the extension service workers.

10. Credit facilities to small-scale fish farmers do not appear to be a major constraint at present.

11. Present staff are not of the required number, expertise or experience to successfully promote and support a country-wide fish farming programme. In particular, intensive and practical training in fish farming is required by Government fish scouts and extension service workers.

12. The training of extension service workers (both from the Department of Fisheries and from the Department of Agriculture) progresses well and additional training courses are planned. Shorter-term courses were initiated for fish scouts and fish farmers from rural areas. On-the-job training was provided for fish farmers not able to attend scheduled courses.

13. With great satisfaction the fact was noted that in each annual fish scout training course women represented about 35% of the participants.

14. The Department of Fisheries and the project jointly produced a most useful “Manual for Fish Farming Production Units in Schools”. Additional extension materials in the form of film strips, slide shows, a video film and hand-out information sheets were developed by the project. More recently the project published “Better Freshwater Fish Farming in Zambia”, for the use of extension workers dealing with small-scale fish farmers.

15. The participation of school children and women in some rural fish farming activities of the project was noted and welcomed.

16. The National Project and the Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme (ALCOM), both executed by FAO, should meet regularly to ensure better cooperation and coordination. The activities of the two projects are not always complementary and some duplication of effort was noted. The long-term and immediate objectives stated in each project document should be followed and no new activities started unless officially approved by Government, executing agency and donor.

17. An annual tripartite meeting would have benefited the project, but it was noted that no provision was made in the project document for such meetings.

18. The project outputs are considered to be satisfactory. The results have assisted in further promoting and developing fish farming in Zambia, although much still remains to be done.

19. There is an immediate need to develop a realistic and comprehensive National Aquaculture Plan, to make best use of existing human and natural resources and to ensure sustained development.

20. There is an urgent need for government coordination of all present and proposed national and foreign funded aquaculture projects within Zambia, to avoid duplication of effort and inappropriate projects.

21. Also, human resources and expertise within the country should be consolidated. There is a need to develop an Aquaculture Training Centre, within a national project, with basic facilities for training, demonstration, extension and small-scale production.

22. Adequate annual funding is required by the Department of Fisheries to support the high priority given to fish farming in the Fourth National Development Plan, 1989–93.

    The main recommendations of the Mission are that:

23. Tilapia fry production should and can be increased at each project farm, through the use of new broodstock and better management techniques.

24. The present programme of training in fish farming should be strengthened and updated to provide intensive and practical training, especially for fish scouts at Kasaka and fish farmers at Mwekera.

25. The training of extension service workers should be incorporated as regular courses at each of the three farms. Routine refresher courses should be given to fish scouts and the appropriateness of the courses should be monitored.

26. Staff levels should be increased to support present aquaculture production and be phased to cater for future planned increases, particularly in areas where capture fishery production cannot satisfy the demand.

27. Existing reservoirs supplying water to the Chilanga fish farm should be dredged and enlarged, and supply canals and channels cleaned. The Chipata fish farm solved its water shortage problems by these means.

28. Cooperation and working contacts should be promoted with existing institutions in Zambia in the fields of animal husbandry, stock feeds, farm management, diseases and training.

29. FAO should ensure that the National Project and the ALCOM project are complementary and cooperate to the fullest extent.

30. A consultant should be employed by the project specifically to assess the economic viability of the duck-cum-fish farming system under conditions prevailing in rural areas and also to examine the socio-economic aspects of the integration of fish culture into existing farming systems.

31. The present project should be extended for a period of six months, using remaining funds in the project, to successfully finalise project activities. The present staff should remain with the project during the proposed six months extension.

32. Having reached the present encouraging level, the training, applied research and extension activities of the present GCP/ZAM/038/NET project should continue to be supported in order not to lose momentum.

33. Future aquaculture development should be phased to include the development of a National Aquaculture Plan. Funding should be made available to develop a realistic Plan, to include not only bio-technical priorities but also socio-economic, nutritional and manpower/labour training needs. The Plan should focus mainly on small- and medium-scale fish farming integrated in existing farming systems, and on culture-based fisheries.

34. All present and proposed national and foreign funded aquaculture projects should be coordinated by one Government project. Funding should be sought to support a small aquaculture coordination project to work with the Government.

35. Funding should be found for the phased development of an Aquaculture Training Centre, within a national project, with basic facilities for training, demonstration, extension and small-scale production. Such a centre should try to consolidate and maximise human resources and expertise within the country and build on existing physical facilities.

36. Identification missions should be mounted to formulate proposals for interested donors concerning the three above-mentioned subjects. Such identification missions might best be organised and coordinated by FAO, in cooperation with the Government of Zambia and interested donor agencies.

LIST OF MAJOR ITEMS OF EQUIPMENT PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT

Annexure 35

	GUIDELINES FOR THE TECHNICAL EVALUATION OF FISHPOND SITE
	Lima Bank Limited (Registered Commercial Bank)	Head Office Kulima House P. O. Box 32607 Lusaka Zambia Tel: 213111 Telex: ZA 40126

It is extremely important to conduct investigation concerning the suitability of the fishpond site. In the selection of the project location, the following are to be considered:

The first type of layout which starts with the cultivation of fry and fingerlings, consist of the Nursery pond, transition pond and the Rearing pond. The water supply canal usually constructed at the centre of the pond system or at the sides of the ponds, depending upon the site location. The Nursery pond is the smallest portion of the pond system. It should be constructed near the main gate in order to have access to the source of the water. The transition pond is smaller than the Rearing, where the fry is being stunted and may also be served as rearing pond during the late season of cultivation. The Rearing pond which the fingerlings will be cultured to its desired size occupies the biggest pond bottom of the fish pond project. It is estimated that the size of the Nurseries pond is about 13 per cent, the transition pond is 37 per cent and the Rearing/Production pond is 50 per cent of the total area.

The second type of layout is without the Nursery pond and consist of the transition and Rearing pond. The transition pond should be constructed near the water supply or adjacent to the main gate so that water will be sufficient in order to observe the desired water level.

The third type of layout construction is only the Rearing pond. This is the common pond construction in the project areas.

The fourth layout aside from the Nursery, transition and rearing or production pond has its own hatchery pond. This is due to the fact that the source of fry/fingerlings is a problem of fish pond operators in Zambia. And according to Dr. V. Gopalakrishnan, Chief Technical Adviser of Food and Agriculture (FAO) of the United Nations, Chilanga, it is very necessary to have this pond in the pond system in order to have a steady source of fry. The other layouts were assumed that the operators can secure their fingerlings from FAO, Chilanga, DOF Fish Farms at Mwekera Kitwa, Chipata, Eastern Province and Misamfu at the Northern Province.

The hatchery in this design has an area of 150 square meters which can accommodate 48 breeders, consisting of 40 females and 8 males at a ratio of 5:1, and approximately 3 square meters per breeder stocking rate. The four (4) types of fish pond design and layouts are attached herewith as reference.

Land Utilisation of a One Hectare Fish Pond.

TYPE 1

TYPE 2

TYPE 3

Legend:

TP-Transition Pond
NP-Nursery Pond
RP-Rearing Pond
SC-Supply Canal
- Main Gate
Secondary Gate

TYPES OF FISHPOND LAYOUT

Annexure 36

Technical advice and visits - (Chilanga based activities)

SIDA Fish Farm Project, with assistance from Montedisen Servizi Agricolture.

R.M. Mungomba, Lusaka - Technical advice.

M.M. Dale, Nangombe Farm, Lusaka - Technical advice.

S.G. Chifwambwa, Chikango Agriculture Investment Ltd., Lusaka.

E.H. Himunyangwa, Makeni - Technical advice and visit.

Mrs M. Punabantu, Lusaka - Technical advice and visits.

X.E. Vlahakis, Chirundu -Technical advice.

J.E. Kamwala, ZNCF, Lusaka -Technical advice.

R.J.C. Musonda, Makeni -Technical advice.

D. Namala, Lusaka West - Technical advice.

J.M. Nyirenda, Makeni Blocks, Lusaka - Technical advice.

M.C. Chingembu, Palabana Dairy Trg. Institute, Lusaka - Technical advice.

R. Dahlberg, LPCU, Lusaka - Technical advice.

D. Nyirenda, Mimosa - Technical advice and visits.

C. Jere, Livingstone Green Farm, Mimosa - Technical advice.

R.K. Phiri, C.D.C. Science Dept., Lusaka - Technical advice.

F. Mtonga, Lusaka West - Technical advice.

F.S. Muchemwa, Munkolo Youth Centre, Mt. Makulu - Technical advice and visits.

G. Chalungumana, Lusaka West - Technical advice.

M.F. Chanda, Proposed farm in Kafue - Technical advice.

K.M. Koolwa, Lilayi - Technical advice.

R.K. Chinambo, Kuka Farm, Lusaka East - Technical advice.

Z.C.F. Finance Services Ltd., Lusaka - Technical advice.

W.J. Mbewe, Lusaka - Technical advice and visit.

R.M. Kaposa, ZCF/Finance Services, Kasama - Technical advise.

J. Venter and J.A.C. Warepoel, Bancroft Farm Lusaka West - Technical advice.

J.D. Chileshe, Lusaka - Technical advice.

S.B. Chiwala, Lusaka - Technical advice.

G.N. Miyengo, Lusaka - Technical advice and visit.

G.M. Muyangana, Kafue - Technical advice.

E.K. Nyama, Lusaka - Technical advice.

T.B. Chintu, Serenje - Technical advice and visit.

D. Chipeta, Lusaka - Technical advice.

F. Mlotha, Lusaka - Technical advice and visit.

C.T.A. Banda, Katete - Technical advice.

Leeward Acres Farm Ltd., Lusaka - Technical advice.

M. Zivorad, Mkushi - Technical advice.

N.M. Muyunda, Lusaka West - Technical advice and visit.

Pandolikar and Sons, Lusaka - Technical advice.

B.D. Kalwani, Chongwe - Technical advice and visit.

M.M. Jurda, Mukushi - Technical advice.

P.S. Mbewe, State Lodge, Lusaka - Technical advice.

R.M.M. Murumbi, Chishawasha Estates, Lusaka - Technical advice and visit.

S.S. Mulenga, Lilayi - Technical advice and visit.

A.J. Mukuka, Lusaka - Technical advice.

J. Munamonga, Lusaka - Technical advice.

S. Mulenga, Mkushi - Technical advice and visit.

Monica Nanchengwa, Lintco. Lusaka West - Technical advice and visit.

C.T. Chanda, Kasama - Technical advice.

F.D. Tumeo, Lusaka - Technical advice.

A. Kamanga, Lusaka West - Technical advice and visit.

D. Kaunga, Lusaka - Technical advice and visit.

W.B.C. Siagwiinte, Livingstone - Technical advice.

A. Kalunga, Lilayi Primary School, Lilayi - Technical advice and visit.

Chongololo Club, Chilanga - Technical advice, visit, site selection.

G. Karas, Chikuni Mission, Chisekesi - Technical advice.

T. Phiri, Lusaka - Technical advice.

S.A. Kalafatis, Mpende Fisheries Ltd., Mbala - Technical advice.

V.K. Mukumba, Z.N.H. Ltd., Lusaka - Technical advice.

J.H. Manwanka, Z.N.H. Ltd., Lusaka - Technical advice.

S.H. Chileshe, Kabangwe - Technical advice and visit.

Helen Chapman, Kuhu Farm, Lusaka - Technical advice.

C.B. Munzele, Lusaka - Technical advice.

Chanyanya Rice Co Ltd., Kafue - Technical advice, visits and site selection.

A. Mumba, Lusaka West - Technical advice.

Kamanga's farm, Mwembeshi, - Technical advice and site selection.

Mwinda Agro Industries Ltd., Gwembe - Technical advice.

Makeni Islamic School, Makeni - Technical advice, management assistance.

Rome Secondary School, Lusaka - Technical advice, management assistance.

Nchanga Farms Ltd., Kitwe (ZCCM) - Technical advice, site selection.

Kasisi Sec. School, Lusaka East - Technical advice, site selection.

Kanakatampa Youth settlement, Chongwe - Technical advice, site selection.

Kambilombilo Youth settlement, Ndola - Technical advice.

Njase Sec. School, Choma - Technical advice, site selection.

R. Kunda, Makeni - Technical advice and visits.

N. Ngoma, Lusaka - Technical advice.

E.V. Chikamba, Chebe Farm, Lusaka - Technical advice

M. Chikamba, Lusaka - Ad-hoc training course for 3 weeks.

J. Finn, Mphundu Farm, Lusaka - Technical advice.

S.P. Mwale, Lusaka West - Technical advice.

E.M. Ndola Nakasanu farms, Mpika - Technical advice.

Chikantata Sec. School, Mazabuka - Technical Advice.

C.A.E. ltd., Lusaka - Technical advice.

M.N. Muyunda, Livingstone - Technical advice.

Nate Centre for Env. Education, Lusaka - Technical advice.

M. Muleya, Kafue - Proposal for 10ha farms

Casen, Makeni - Technical advice and visits.

K.M. Sikota, ZNWMC, Lusaka - Technical advice, site selection.

U. Ngwisha, Lusaka - Technical advice, site selection.

A. Shawa, Lilayi - Technical advice.

D. Mulaisho, Lusaka - Technical advice.

G. Phiri, Makeni - Technical advice.

S. Chileshe, Kabwe - Technical advice, site selection.

Maxwell Nyanga - Technical advice.

Teddy Ngoma - Technical advice.

Mark G.N. Mwansa - Technical advice.

Vernon Hagwamuna - Technical advice.

S.B. Chiwala - Technical advice.

Grema Multipurpose co-op. Society - Technical advice.

Louis Walter Pitchen - Technical advice

Mutale Joseph Bwembya - Technical advice.

Edwin K. Nyama - Technical advice.

R.M.M. Mumbi - Technical advice, site selection.

Zax Nkhuwa - Technical advice, site selection.

Nixon K. Tembo - Technical advice.

Elton Mkandawire - Technical advice, site selection.

Y.D. Sichinge - Technical advice, site selection.

R.S. Siyuni - Technical advice, site selection.

Raphael Muyandare - Technical advice.

K.M. Sikota - Technical advice, site selection.

Abel J. Mukuke - Technical advice, Request for training.

Mrs Digby - Technical advice.

M. Simbeye - Technical advice, site survey

Gerald S. Matoke - Technical advice, site survey.

Patrick Kayukwa - Technical advice.

Bruno Chikota - Technical advice.

Lishomwa - Technical advice.

A.E. Nyirenda - Technical advice.

K. Bwalya - Technical advice.

M. Michelo - Technical advice.

F. Munali - Technical advice.

Muleya - Technical advice.

Imasiku Muyunda - Technical advice.

M. Zulu (Mrs) - Technical advice.

Z.Z.. Arnantoric - Technical advice.

Col. Katahdula - Technical advice.

Lidya Nyange - Technical advice.

Chanyanya Rice Co. - Technical advice.

D.J.L. Sakala - Technical advice.

V.T. Mwandila - Technical advice.

Emmasdale Primary School - Technical advice.

Koyunga Farm - Technical advice.

Salvator Manda - Technical advice.

Chris-Smith - Technical advice, Request for feasibility study

Marshall N.J.M Buche - Technical advice, site survey.

Kakana - Technical advice.

Stephenson - Technical advice, site survey.

A.P. Nyoni - Technical advice.

Brother George Sc. - Technical advice.

Chaisa Primary School - Technical advice.

Robinson Makayi - Technical advice, site survey.

PCC, Kabwe - Technical advice.

E.R.Z. (Holdings) Ltd. - Technical advice.

Simon Nkamba - Technical advice.

Ivan Cawsey - Technical advice.

Christopher Zwodsiwe - Technical advice.

Victor M. Nsemiwe - Technical advice, site survey.

Moroka farms - Technical advice, site survey.

L.C. Mutakasma - Technical advice.

Sam Bwalya Chama - Technical advice.

Mike Phiri - Technical advice, site survey.

George Mbewe - Technical advice.

Bobtong Farm - Technical advice.

T.M. Fara - Technical advice.

A. Chilemkeni - Technical advice.

David Chiwala - Technical advice.

Kanane - Technical advice.

Aretha Ifunga - Technical advice - Catfish farming.

Chilanga Fish Farm - Supply of fish seed to farmers