During the ALCOM's Steering Committee meetings of 1993 and 1994, regional fisheries and aquaculture scientists and administrators have highlighted the need to improve knowledge on the use and conservation of indigenous aquatic species for small reservoir fisheries and aquaculture development. At the same time they have questioned the practicality of using Codes of Practice on species introductions and transfers that have been developed elsewhere.
At the Committee's request, ALCOM organized a Technical Consultation on Species for Small Reservoir Fisheries and Aquaculture in Southern Africa from 7–11 November 1994 in Livingstone, Zambia. The consultation was held to contribute to improved utilization and conservation of indigenous aquatic species and responsible use of exotic species for small reservoir fisheries and aquaculture development in Southern Africa. Fifty two regional and international experts participated and considered aspects of species selection, policy, legal issues, and mechanisms for implementation. The programme of the consultation is given in Appendix 2 and the list of documents is presented in Appendix 3.
The meeting was sponsored by ALCOM through the Belgian-funded project Utilization of Small Water Bodies for Fisheries and Aquaculture.
In his keynote address, Dr. D. F. Thys van den Audenaerde of Belgium, who chaired the consultation, reviewed the concept of biodiversity as applied to aquatic organisms in general and African fishes in particular. He pointed out that all African fish species are endemic to Africa. They evolved in their own biotypes, and the level of speciation is comparable with the high rates found in South America, much greater than the other continents. However, the understanding of the systematics of African fishes is incomplete, as are the environmental causes of many natural species flocks. This leaves African fishes open to unintended and unknown impacts by the transfer and introduction of strains and species for economic activities such as fish culture and stocking. These threats also come from modification of water quality, modification of the global biotype, and changes in species composition. In many areas of Africa, land and inland water resources are under stress; a concerted effort is needed to understand the nature and potential of biological and economic impacts of modifications on aquatic biodiversity.
Participants addressed these issues through thirty presentations and ten country posters in four themed sessions: the regional perspective, fish resources, utilization of fish resources, and species introductions. The extended abstracts of the presentations are given in Appendix 4.
The main deliberations took place in working groups on three key topics. For each topic a brief overview was prepared, along with a statement of central issues and problems with a focus on Southern Africa, and priorities for action by Governments, SADC, FAO and other institutions in Southern Africa. The findings and recommendations of the working groups are highlighted below.
Describes the potential impacts of the use of selected species, whether indigenous or exotic, on the natural aquatic environment in Southern Africa including competition, ecological and genetic effects.
Brief overview of the topic
In Southern Africa many exotic species have been used for aquaculture and fisheries. In general, these introductions took place with no preliminary research or with a minimum of preliminary investigations concerning the effects. Recently, there has been an increased demand for the introduction of other species into the area.
There has been some use of a few indigenous species in the region and there is interest in increasing the use of other indigenous species.
All aquatic organisms used in aquaculture are potential escapees, and many species have escaped into natural waters or spread beyond their original site of introduction. The effects of these escapees are often detrimental to the natural environment and to the local indigenous species.
Proposed and possible introductions of aquatic species with aquaculture or fishery potential to Southern Africa have to be examined based on their possible effects to the local environment and local indigenous species. The use of exotic species previously introduced to the region should also be examined. It is acknowledged that many past effects and impacts of species introductions have been unpredicted and unexpected due to our inadequate understanding of the functioning and structuring of aquatic ecosystems. However, incomplete knowledge of the aquatic environment should not be an excuse to forego vigorous evaluation and management based on the best science available.
Potential impacts of selected species on natural and manipulated aquatic environments
There is a wide range of possible impacts from the use of introduced or translocated species. Species were organized in groups of aquatic organisms based on their general ecological similarities. The possible impacts of these groups on feed competition, species interaction, possible hybridization, predation, disease transmission, habitat change, influence on species composition, production and water quality in natural aquatic ecosystems in Southern Africa were reviewed. This matrix can be used to help select species for aquaculture or small water bodies, and help design monitoring and impact assessment programs, as well as identify areas of additional research.
Recommendations
The overriding philosophy or recommendation on this topic is that management and assessment must be based on an ecosystem approach; thus conserving not only species of commercial value, but also maintaining the healthy functioning of the entire aquatic community. More specifically: the notions of “indigenous” and “exotic” should be clear and unequivocal to all people involved in fisheries and aquaculture. A species is only indigenous in the geographic area where it occurred naturally before any interference by man. Outside that area, this species is to be considered as exotic. It is recommended that legislation and/or policies should be adapted according to these definitions, and all SADC countries should adhere to these definitions.
The Southern African region contains a number of ecosystems of special significance and value, such as the Lake Malawi/Niassa drainage area with a large number of endemic species that constitute a unique aquatic life-community, and the Lake Kuruman sinkhole with only one endemic tilapia species (Tilapia guinasana). Until these very complex ecosystems are well understood, tanslocations of species exotic to these areas should be avoided.
The countries bordering Lake Malawi/Niassa, Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania, should coordinate their approach to the management of this lake.
Some river systems in Southern Africa, such as the highland rivers in Lesotho and the small river system of the Southern Cape areas, have a low number of fish species with a high degree of endemicity. These systems are particularly sensitive (or vulnerable) to introductions and translocations. Translocations of predators such as Clarias, salmonids and bass, should be avoided.
Much more basic research on cyprinids indigenous to Southern Africa is needed before the use of these fish can be accurately evaluated; meanwhile translocations of these cyprinids within the region should be avoided. Research should include, inter alia, natural and cultured growth rate, river ecology, reproductive biology, nutrition, disease and systematics.
The intra-lacustrine transfers of rock-inhabiting cichilds should be controlled and avoided inside Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi/Niassa, as these transfers provoke perturbancies of the biodiversity inside these lakes, and can lead to the extinction of some specialized microspecies. Particular attention in this field should be paid to the aquarium trade.
All people involved in fisheries and aquaculture should receive appropriate training in the fields of systematics of aquatic organisms, aquatic ecology and impact assessments. This training should be periodically upgraded and preferably organized on a regional level.
Concerning all proposals of new introductions, it is recommended to strictly adhere to the Code of Practice as outlined in ICES-EIFAC documents. Special attention should be paid to alternative solutions regarding the proposed introductions.
International efforts should be made to conserve the genetic diversity of aquatic species of aquaculture and aquaculture potential in Southern Africa. Strategies should be developed regarding development of nature reserves, protected areas, and ex situ conservation, as well as regarding funding mechanisms.
The use of GIS should be incorporated into the planning and use of exotic species in the region. Furthermore, databases and records of the movement and impact of exotic species should be maintained and consulted.
Although good information exists on the aquatic resources of much of the region, there are gaps in our knowledge of the aquatic resources of Mozambique and Angola. Efforts should be made to complete faunistic surveys of these areas.
Describes the criteria for species selection based on biotechnical and socio-economic culture conditions, assuming that a first cut of potential species has been made on environmental conditions.
Brief overview of the topic
In identifying the criteria for selecting species for aquaculture in Southern Africa, it was observed that the fish farming environments are heterogeneous. This heterogeneity is mainly due to the capabilities of resource acquisition among farmers; some farmers have more resources than others. Further, it was recognized there are differences in the prioritization of objectives among these heterogeneous fish farming enterprises, with some geared more to household food security while others are mainly interested in maximizing profits. The farmers were therefore divided into two major groups, namely the small-scale/extensive (smallholder) and the large-scale/intensive (commercial).
Small-scale farmers are those who have small hectarage, rely on natural spawning for seed production, do not have a well-defined schedule for feeding fish, have low capital investment in their enterprise, and usually use household labor.
On the other hand, the large-scale farmers are those who have large hectarage, can afford artificial propagation of seed, have a defined feeding schedule, have large capital investment, use hired labor and can afford to commission consultancies who provide technical advice.
Considering the fact that small water bodies play a major role in supplying aquatic food to rural populations of Southern Africa, it was necessary to define criteria for selecting fish species for reservoir restocking. A reservoir is generally defined as a semi-wild environment, very close to an extensive aquaculture environment. Apart from this general description, small water bodies remain difficult to define. Some are used for sport fishing, some for subsistence fishing by local communities, some for commercial exploitation and some as a component of commercial aquaculture facilities. The manner in which a small reservoir is managed depends very much on what role it is expected to play in development.
Criteria for species selection
Criteria for species selection are sub-divided according to:
culture characteristics: feeding preference, stress resistance, food conversion, growth rate, suitability for polyculture, possible damage to culture unit, catchability, disease resistance, uniform growth.
reproductive traits: natural reproduction, fecundity, early maturity, ease of sexing.
economic factors: availability/cost of inputs, market demand, price, marketing cost.
miscellaneous issues: availability of technical advice, familiarity with species.
The importance of these criteria was ranked for smallholder farmers, commercial farmers and reservoir fisheries seperately.
Recommendations
The diversity of culture systems, resource ownership and purposes for undertaking aquaculture and small-scale fisheries are so diverse, and the potential range of species so broad, that decisions about individual species were not possible within the available working time of the group. Such a categorization would require an entire volume of its own and might be worthwhile as a national or regional project in future
It is however obvious that the criteria and the systematic ranking would form a useful tool in evaluating species for various aquaculture and fishery applications.
Describes the current mechanisms and the changes/new mechanisms needed to implement species selection protocols at regional and national levels.
The current status and recommendations for six main mechanisms were prepared.
Legislation
In order for countries to be able to implement management plans for aquaculture and fisheries in small water bodies, a legal or regulatory framework by which movements of aquatic organisms can be controlled needs to be in place.
Legislation enabling imports to be controlled, and regulations associated with such legislation, are well established and functional throughout the region. Generally a permit system is in operation whereby imports require approval. Some countries have regulations in place, theoretically enabling movements within a country to be controlled. However, such movements are difficult, often impossible, to either regulate and/or control. In most cases current legislation and regulations needed to be up-dated to make them compatible with modern fisheries and aquaculture management practices and issues.
The group made four recommendations to improve the legislative and regulatory basis for the management of aquatic resources and the implementation of management plans at country level.
Each country should review its existing legislation in relation to modern aquaculture and fisheries management practices, and strengthen regulations etc. as and when necessary. This particularly relates to the need to exert more effective control over internal movements of aquatic organisms (e.g. after initial importation). The need to be able to regulate both “exotic” species (on and after initial importation) and “indigenous” species or strains should be included in the review process.
Countries should revise penalties to make regulations more effective as a deterent. Penalties should be in-line with the levels of adverse economic, environmental or other problems that could possibly arise from inappropriate (or unapproved) introductions and/or transfers (i.e., penalties should be substantial).
Where feasible, countries should improve regulatory controls over aquaculture operations by, for example, adopting or strengthening a licensing system for aquaculture operations. This should include a permit system regarding the location and general suitability of aquaculture sites, restrictions on unapproved movements of cultured organisms between farms and release into the wild.
In view of the difficulty of controlling movements after initial importation, countries should note that all permits (or requests) for the importation of organisms must be issued (or considered) based on an assumption that after importing, the organisms will eventually be moved or dispersed to all parts of the country.
Aquarium fishes
It was generally agreed that the increased use of ornamental fishes in the region posed a serious threat in terms of unapproved, inadvertent or “accidental” release into the wild. The group recommended that countries should manage activities relating to aquarium and other ornamental organisms under the same policies and regulations that apply to, or are developed for, any other kind of introduction or transfer.
Education
Despite the need for improved legislative or regulatory controls, and more effective monitoring and enforcement, it was generally agreed that the most significant progress towards improved management can be achieved through educational, training and awareness programs.
The group made five recommendations to improve the effectiveness of management plans by increasing awareness, at all levels, of the need for such management, policies and regulations. The effectiveness of improved management and regulation will be much enhanced when the managers and users of aquatic resources understand the management issues involved.
SADC or other regional co-ordination and technical bodies should organize short training courses, symposia, workshops etc. for senior officials in order to (i) improve awareness of management issues at these levels, and (ii) to improve national capacity in devising and implementing local awareness programs (as below). This will require external inputs which should, as far as possible, be sourced at regional level. International technical agencies, including FAO, should be approached for assistance in facilitating this training.
At a national level, countries should begin, or strengthen, local educational, training and awareness programs which especially aim to inform target groups of the reasons for policies and management (or regulations, etc.). In particular, programs need to improve awareness of the consequences of unapproved or uncontrolled introductions and transfers. Such programs might include, but not be limited to:
awareness programs for government officials, including the education of policy makers regarding the management issues in question of awareness campaigns for fish farmers;
the dissemination of information materials at points of entry into the country, at aquarium fish outlets, fish seed producers, fishermen's associations, etc.;
popular articles in newspapers, magazines, local or regional journals etc.;
awareness programs through television and the radio as well as awareness programs at school level including incorporating aquatic resource management concepts into school curricula.
In order for the above to be achieved, regional cooperation should be initiated or improved with a view to the development of appropriate awareness and/or educational materials.
Countries should attempt, where possible, to separate the extension and law enforcement functions of fishery extension officers to enable them to more effectively carry out awareness programs.
Once awareness programs have an impact, countries should encourage professional organizations (e.g., fishermen's associations etc.) and local communities to police regulations themselves. Local management of resources by resource users should be encouraged.
The role of International Organizations and Funding Agencies
It was noted that a good number of introductions and transfers have arisen from the activities of projects implemented by international agencies. In a number of cases there is potential conflict of policy between such projects and national governments.
To bring the activities of international agencies inline with current opinion on the need for appropriate and responsible management of aquatic resources, countries should take a more leading role in ensuring that the activities of internationally funded and/or implemented projects comply with national policies relating to the management of aquatic resources. International agencies should review their own regulations and/or policies, and conduct their own inhouse awareness programs, relating to the use of introductions and transfers in fisheries and aquaculture management.
International/regional matters
In the Southern African region a great number of river or lake basins are shared between two or more countries. In view of the assumption that all introduced exotics can be assumed to eventually disperse throughout an entire country, such considerations should feature in most introductions or transfers.
Existing infrastructures enabling co-ordination of such considerations are relatively well developed within the region. These include: Permanent Joint Commissions between Malawi and Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe, Malawi and Tanzania, Botswana and Zimbabwe; the Lake Victoria sub-committee (CIFA), the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Council, Lake Tanganyika sub-committee (CIFA), and the Lake Victoria Fishery Commission (established between Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda). In addition, SADC is prominent in the region and can be utilized where and when necessary. However, inter-country co-operation needs to be broadened to include countries not necessarily adjacent to one another especially with regard to river basins which can extend through a number of countries over wide geographical distances.
However, despite these existing mechanisms, consultations between relevant countries appear to have no formal framework and, in the few cases where they have occurred, have generally been on an ad-hoc basis.
To improve and strengthen the management of shared aquatic resources on a basin or lake wide basis leading to improved management for the benefit of all interested parties, countries should hold technical consultations with other relevant countries before internal introductions or transfers take place. Mechanisms should be developed, e.g., through CIFA, whereby the views of other interested parties are included in the consideration of a proposal. This, of course, does not sacrifice the sovereignity of countries over their own internal affairs.
Infrastructures and mechanisms for the selection of species to use in development
All countries expressed the urgent need for guidelines on how to assess the pros and cons of proposals to introduce or transfer aquatic organisms and other management practices. Such guidelines are especially required in the fields of ecology, socio-economics, genetics and fish health.
The way in which countries currently reach a decision on whether or not to proceed with an introduction or transfer (or other management action) varies considerably between countries. However, with a few exceptions, the process is generally on an ad-hoc basis. All countries appreciate the need to encourage decision making under a wider consensus of informed opinion at the local level.
The group made six recommendations which would lead to the development of guidelines through a process of national level consultation within a broad framework for introductions, which would insure regional level coordination and harmonization. A key to success would be the use of independent, local expertise.
It is recommended that SADC in particular, and other existing regional bodies or joint commissions should develop guidelines applicable to the Southern African region. In order to avoid duplication of effort, this process might begin by investigating the suitability of existing guidelines and/or those being developed elsewhere.
Countries should develop or improve domestic decision making processes which incorporate advice and opinions from a wide variety of informed expertise.
In cases where decisions relate to introductions or transfers proposed by governmental departments, countries should ensure that such decisions incorporate independent expert opinion.
Countries should ensure that under their respective legislation and/or policies the jurisdiction over fisheries and aquaculture related matters is vested in the appropriate governmental department. In most cases this implies that fisheries departments (or equivalent bodies) should have jurisdiction over fishery and aquaculture related matters, including fish health considerations. However, where prudent, mechanisms must incorporate the views of relevant associated departments (for example, in the wildlife or environment and conservation sectors). In most cases this will require changes in the ways in which appropriate powers are delegated.
In order to improve access to expert advice and opinion, countries and regional bodies (such as permanent joint committees, SADC, CIFA) should establish networks which can assist them in evaluating proposals when requested. Such networks should not have any regulatory function but be willing to assist in circumstances where local difficulties occur. The composition of such networks should come primarily from a core of experts within the region but this should not preclude incorporation of expert opinion from other regions, where necessary and prudent, especially in specialized technical areas. Such networks should be able to provide advice free to users. In addition, there may be occasions where the subject matter in question involves consideration of factors where limited local or regional expertise is available (for example, proposals to import species not familiar within the Southern African region). Therefore, FAO should consider establishing a framework under which such wider and more specialized, and novel, advice may be obtained if desired, again free to users. This might be achieved by establishing similar networks of expertise in other regions.
SADC is already compiling a list of expertise available within the region. It is recommended that SADC develop a refined and shortened version of such a directory to make it specific to the particular fields of expertise relevant to the issues discussed at this technical consultation.
Finally, the group noted that it had focused on issues relating primarily to introductions and transfers. However, frameworks for developing rational management plans based on other considerations are also required. For example, how to ensure that appropriate species or strains are used purely from a production point of view. It was concluded that the infrastructures discussed above can also be used effectively to address these other considerations. For example, networks, regional bodies, joint commissions, internal steering committees, etc. can also function to co-ordinate other development activities and management recommendations as appropriate.
The presentations and group discussions illustrate the situation in Southern Africa where fish species have been frequently introduced. In many cases these introductions had a negative impact on the aquatic ecosystem without significant positive effects. The consultation concluded that the effects of any introduction are extremely difficult to predict due to the limited knowledge of the dynamics of the various ecosystems.
Introductions of exotics do not always have a negative effect, and experiences have shown that some introductions can have great economic benefits. With the further development of aquaculture in the region and the increased pressure on the natural aquatic resources, it can be expected that further introductions will occur. It is unrealistic to assume that all introductions of exotic aquatic species can be blocked. The consultation showed that due to the diversity of culture systems and resource ownership, the changes in economics and wide variety of purposes of culturing fish, it is impossible to predict what species are most likely to be introduced in the future.
It is therefore necessary for all countries to have a logical and systematic system in place to regulate the movements of aquatic organisms. Most countries have well established regulations for the control of imports into the countries, but regulations to control transport within the countries are often not in place. Besides, it is very difficult to control these transports. All countries share river systems and the introduction of a species in one country is therefore of direct concern to the other countries. The consultation made several recommendations on how the region could develop a system that would improve the evaluation of any proposed introduction and ensure the collaboration with other countries in the region. It is hoped that the conclusions and recommendations of this consultation will urge and assist the governments in the Southern African region to establish regional codes of practice for introductions of aquatic species.
In his closing remarks, the chair noted the fundamental need to improve the basic knowledge of the biology of the diverse species found in Southern Africa. Such knowledge is needed to support the proposals for systematic evaluation and selection of species for reservoir fisheries and aquaculture, which are important productive activities for the region no matter how they are undertaken.
