1.2.3 Plantation characteristics
Estimates of growth rates by rotation ages and thinning regimes are reported in (2), (4) and (14). The most salient information is shown in the table below, indicating also site influence on the performance of different species.
Plantation characteristics
| Species | Rotation years | M.A.I. m3/ha/year (age) | Number of trees per ha | Mean height of 10 tallest trees at 1 year m | Average tree diameter cm | Thinning % (year) | Remarks | Source |
| Araucaria spp. | 35 | 14 | on average site | (14) | ||||
| Pinus caribaea | 25.7(6) | 1375 | 19.25 | no | (4) | |||
| 28.2(6) | 1200 | 21.0 | 25%(3) | |||||
| 23.2(6) | 1050 | 21.0 | 34%(3) | |||||
| 19.9(6) | 800 | 23.0 | 50%(3) | |||||
| 9.6(6 ¼) | on eroded site | (2) | ||||||
| 17.2(7) | 14.6 | |||||||
| 23.4(9.5) | 19.5 | |||||||
| 24.8(10 ¾) | 22.3 | |||||||
| 16.7(11) | 20.1 | |||||||
| 20.4–24.1(11.5) | ||||||||
| 17.0(11 ¾) | 22.3 | |||||||
| 21.0(12) | 24.1 | |||||||
| 15 | 17.4 | on average site | (14) | |||||
| Pinus merkusii | 25.3(13.5) | (2) |
2. Present trends
2.1 Natural woody vegetation
2.1.1 Deforestation
An estimation of depletion rates of forest areas is based on the 1975 airphoto assessment over development areas (11) and the accomplishement reports of the Federal Land Development Authority and state Development Corporations (12). It is estimated that during the 1976–80 period, agricultural expansion continued at an annual rate of 80 000 ha per year. Developments in mining, hydro-electricity and highway construction, required a further 10 000 ha of forest land per year on average. In the coming 5 year period, the total rate of 90 000 ha of forest conversion is assessed to remain at the same level, with a possible drop in agricultural expansion balanced by a corresponding increase in forest areas required for dam reservoirs and highway construction.
Average annual deforestation
(in thousand ha)
| Periods 1976–80 | ||||||
| Category | NHCf1uv | NHCf1uc | NHCf1m | NHCf1 | NHCf2 | NHCf |
| Within forest reserves | ε | ε | ε | ε | ||
| Outside forest reserves | 7.21 | 82.8 | 90 | 90 | ||
| Total | 7.2 | 82.8 | 90 | ε | 90 | |
| 1981–85 (projections) | ||||||
| Within forest reserves | ε | ε | ε | ε | ||
| Outside forest reserves | 6.82 | 83.2 | 90 | 90 | ||
| Total | 6.8 | 83.2 | 90 | ε | 90 | |
2 estimated at 9% of 75 000 ha per year.
2.1.2 Degradation
As indicated in the foregoing, shifting cultivation, fuelwood collection and burning have minimal effects on the extent of the permanent forest estate in Peninsular Malaysia. With respect to degradation, concern has been expressed regarding the changes in forest composition following selective fellings, e.g. the reduction of the proportion in remaining tree stands of high-value commercial species of mainly the meranti type. Silvicultural management is being devised to minimize these changes within practical limits.
2.1.3 Trends in forest utilization
In (7), a projection of local consumption of sawn wood and plywood is given taking into account population and income growth estimates. Annual roundwood equivalents of consumption are projected as 3.0 million m3/year in the period 1981–85, 3.9 million m3/year in the period 1986–90 and 5.2 million m3/year in the period 1991–95.
A mill capacity of approximately 10 million m3/year had been built-up by 1977, processing an annual roundwood production of (1976/77) 4.5 million m3 from forest reserves and 5.5 million m3 from conversion forests (586 sawmills, 46 plywood/veneer, 3 particle board). However supply of presently commercialized species is expected to decrease under controlled conditions as follows:
1980–90 : 8 million m3/year or 20% deficit,
1991–95 : 6 million m3/year or 40% deficit,
1996–2000 : 5.3 million m3/year, which is the out turn from the permanent forests only as the forest conversion programme will be completed.
This indicates an end to the large exports of traditional sawn timber and plywood volumes by the turn of the century. Therefore, the utilization of forest products is being gradually changed through intensified research and promotion of:
the use of rubberwood from the large annual replanting schemes,
the use of tree species rarely used in the past.
the use of minor forest products, especially rattans (including trials for propagation and planting).
the establishment of tree plantations on unused non-forest lands, especially mining waste lands (to improve environmental quality as well).
2.1.4 Areas and growing stock at end 1985
The indications given in previous sections used with the area and volume estimates at end 1980, lead to the estimates at end 1985 presented below.
Areas of natural woody vegetation estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)
| Category | NHCf1uv | NHCf1uc | NHCf1m | NHCf1 | NHCf2 | NHCf | NHCa |
| Within forest reserves | 942 | 1797 | 862 | 3601 | 1771 | 5372 | ε |
| Outside forest reserves | 1757 | 1757 | 1757 | ε | |||
| Total | 942 | 3554 | 862 | 5358 | 1771 | 7129 | ε |
Growing stock estimated at end 1985
(in million m3)
| NHCf1uv | NHCf1uc | NHCf1m | NHCf1 | NHCf2 | NHCf | ||
| VOB | VAC | VOB | VOB | AAC | VOB | VOB | VOB |
| 304 | 42.4 | 725 | 224 | 1.9 | 1253 | 351 | 1604 |
2.2 Plantations
Annual plantation target rates of 1 000 ha of Pinus caribaea and 100 ha of Araucaria spp. are given in (8). It is assumed that under the plantations plans mentioned in section 1.2.1 (60 000 ha in a 5-year period), the following additional areas of mainly Pinus caribaea plantations will be established: 2 000 ha in 1982, 4 000 ha in 1983, 6 000 ha in 1984 and 8 000 ha in 1985. These assumed targets lead to the estimates at end 1985 presented below.
Areas of established plantations estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)
| Category | Species | Years | 81–85 | 76–80 | 71–75 | 66–70 | 56–65 | 46–55 | before 46 | Total |
| Age classes | 0–5 | 5–10 | 11–15 | 16–20 | 21–30 | 31–40 | > 40 | |||
| PHL 1 | Tectona grandis | ε | 0.05 | ε | 0.05 | |||||
| PHH 1 | Albizia falcataria | ε | ε | ε | ε | ε | ε | |||
| Others (e.g. Eucalyptus spp.) | ε | ε | ε | ε | ε | ε | ||||
| Subtotal PHL 1 | ε | ε | ε | ε | ε | ε | ||||
| PH.1 | Subtotal hardwood plantations | ε | ε | ε | ε | 0.05 | ε | 0.05 | ||
| Pinus caribaea | 25.00 | 4.00 | 1.95 | 0.50 | 0.48 | ε | 31.93 | |||
| Pinus kesiya | ε | ε | ε | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.05 | ||||
| PS.1 | Other pines (P. merkusii, P. oocarpa) | ε | ε | ε | ε | ε | ε | |||
| Other conifers (e.g. Araucaria spp.) | 0.50 | 0.04 | 0.05 | ε | ε | 0.59 | ||||
| Subtotal softwood plantations | 25.50 | 4.04 | 2.00 | 0.53 | 0.50 | ε | 32.57 | |||
| P..1 | Total industrial plantations | 25.50 | 4.04 | 2.00 | 0.53 | 0.55 | ε | 32.62 | ||
Lands previously covered with forests have been degraded by near-surface mineral mining. This has progressed over substantial areas in the plains and foothills as gravel pump tin mining. Part of exhausted mining areas are being reconstituted as residential areas or for vegetable gardening near urban centres. Large parts, however, are now being considered for reclamation into forest plantations for fibre production at the same time serving environmental improvement.
Bibliography
(1) Wyatt-Smith, J. 1963 “Manual of Malayan Silviculture” - in Forestry Record No. 23, 2 vol. - Forestry Department - Kuala Lumpur
(2) FAO 1970 “Pilot Plantations of Quick Growing Industrial Tree Species” - Project Summary Report - FAO/UNDP/SF 308 - Rome
(3) FAO 1973 “A National Forest Inventory of West Malaysia, 1970–1972” - FO: DP/MAL/72/009 - Technical Report 5 - Rome
(4) FAO 1975 “Plantation Management Procedures for Large-scale Plantations in Peninsular Malaysia” - FO: DP/MAL/72/009 - Working Paper 36 - Rome
(5) Forestry Department 1975 “Stocking and Stand Volume Growth of Trees + 8" Diameter - Summary Record of Observation Samples in West Coast States” - Yunit Pengurusan Hutan - Kuala Lumpur
(6) FAO 1977 “Notes on Sustained Yield Selective Felling Concession Agreements” - UNDP/FAO/MAL/75/012-Internal discussion paper - Kuala Lumpur
(7) Forestry Department 1977 “Availability of Forest Resources in Peninsular Malaysia” - Kuala Lumpur
(8) Forestry Department 1977 “Forest Land Use and Management Plans for the Kuantan Forest Management Unit and Operations Plans for First Three Years Exploitation” - Yunit Pengurusan Hutah - Kuala Lumpur
(9) Forestry Department 1977 “Dasar Perhutanan - Forest Policy, Peninsular Malaysia” - Kuala Lumpur
(10) Forestry Department 1977 “Progress Report” - prepared for the Asia/Far East Forestry Conference, Nepal 1978 - Kuala Lumpur
(11) FAO 1978 “Forest Development, Peninsular Malaysia” - UNDP/FAO/MAL/75/012 - Discussion paper (based on the work of S. Andel) - Kuala Lumpur
(12) FAO 1978 “Forest Development, Peninsular Malaysia” - FO: DP/MAL/75/012 - Terminal Report - Rome
(13) Forestry Department 1978 “A Preliminary Assessment of Development Rates in Selectively Logged Hill Dipterocarp Forests of the Central-East Region, Peninsular Malaysia” - Yunit Pengurusan Hutan, Forest Management Operations Research and Development Report 3 - Kuala Lumpur
(14) Forestry Department 1980 “Progress Report 1973–79” - prepared for the Eleventh Commonwealth Forestry Conference, Trinidad - Kuala Lumpur
(15) Government of Malaysia, Statistical Department 1980 “Monthly Statistical Bulletin, Peninsular Malaysia, February 1980” - Kuala Lumpur.
The state of Sabah is situated at the northern tip of the island of Borneo. It occupies a land area of 73 940 km2 between approximate latitudes 4°N and 7° N and longitudes 115°20' and 119°20 E. The main offshore islands are Labuan in the west, Banggi in the north, and, in the east, J mbongan , Timbun Mata and Sebatik. The latter is bisected by the boundary with Kalimantan. To the west is the South China Sea, to the east the Sulu Sea and the Celebes Sea is off the south-east of the state. Sabah is a mountainous country. On the basis of relief it may be divided into the following regions (15):
the western lowlands contain the largest area of low, flat ground and include a number of off-shore islands. Though narrow in extent these lowlands are inhabited by almost 70% of the total population of the state;
the Crocker Range runs almost parallel to the coast extending from the southern end of Marudu Bay in the north, and, following the coastline at about 25 km inland, extends southwards, along the western part of the country, to the Sarawak border. Large rivers flow to the east from their origins in the main mass of mountains through valleys that spread into broad alluvial plains and mangrove deltas near the coast. Mount Kinabalu at 4 100m is the highest mountain rising out of the Crocker Range where the main hills are 1 200–1 800 m;
the central uplands are lower than the Crocker Range but their structure is equally complex. The region is thinly populated and economically not important. Witti Range runs from the east of the inland plains more or less parallel to the Crocker, while the Maitland Range runs southeast to Kalimantan. Trus Madi mountain at 2 440m is the highest point of these ranges which gives rise to the Kinabatangan river. The Brassey Range runs in a more or less northeast/southwest direction in the country behind Darvel Bay. Spurs from this form the mountainous country south of the Kinabatangan, and give rise to Segama river and the rivers entering Darvel Bay. The Bagahak Range north of Darvel Bay is of less extent but has steep land rising to 610m. Inland and north of Tawau a tangled mass of rugged volcanic mountains culminate in Mount Magdalena at 1 520m; this area is linked to the Brassey Range;
the eastern lowlands contain low lying swampy zones embracing the deltas of the major rivers, interspersed with sandy stretches of the coastline. Inland from the delta region are the eastern hills and peneplaina which form a raised coastal platform between the uplands and the sea.
Fox (15) describes the climate of Sabah in the following way: “The climate of Sabah is warm and moist. Temperatures of lowland stations in the region average 26.3°C and decrease by 0.6°C for every 100m rise in elevation to 2 000m and then by 0.5°C… Variation in temperature is diurnal rather than seasonal..... Forest occurs rarely on the summit of Mt. Kinabalu where no purely tropical plant family is found above 3 000m at average temperatures in the range of 10–18°C… Average annual rainfall varies from 1 730 to 5 080mm and is subject to seasonal variation due to the moonsoon. The West Monsoon (known as the northeast in Sabah due to the direction of prevailing winds) is experienced from October or November to February, and the East Monsoon (southeast in Sabah) from May to August or September. Between the monsoons, winds are indeterminate. Sabah lies south of the typhoon belt but severe rain and wind storms occur in association with typhoons over the Philippine Islands to the north. Localised cyclonic winds may cut swathes through low vegetation but are uncommon… Landslips, flooding, and localised windfalls associated with heavy rain are of more importance in Sabah. Humidity is generally high especially inside the forest at 70–90 percent rate of humidity rising to 100 percent at night. Perhaps because of this, fire is not known to occur in the natural dipterooarp forests, though in open areas it may follow lightning … Man-made fires have damaged peat swamp forests (e.g. at Seria, Brunei), and heath forests (at Sook Plain, Sabah). Large areas of fire climax grassland occur, with occasional fire resistant trees, notably in Kudat and Kota Belud districts.”
According to census estimates at end of 1976 (14) the total population of Sabah was 880 000 growing at an annual rate of 4.7%. Average population density was 14 persons per km2, agriculture, forestry and fishery being the predominant occupation sector in the country. The number of people who practised shifting cultivation, was estimated to be around 350 000 in 1976, constituting about 40% of the total population; the main groups involved are Kadazans and Kuruts (2).
The modern sector of Sabah's economy consists of estate agriculture, timber extraction, government, trade, commerce, industry and banking which have high income-earning capacity, while the traditional sector consists of common occupation - that of subsistence agriculture: padi, coconut, small rubber estate - and small-scale fishing. The traditional sector has low income and low productivity due to production reasons uneconomic size of holding, no use of fertilisers and outdated farming practices.
A land capability survey has shown that about 30% of the total area of the state (2 145 000 ha) is suitable for agriculture, whereas the present area under agriculture is only 10%. This finding has given impetus to large expansion of the agriculture in the recent years.
1. Present situation
1.1 Natural woody vegetation
1.1.1 Description of the vegetation types
Forest is the natural vegetation throughout the state. Main vegetation types are: lowland and hill dipterocarp forests up to 600 to 900m, montane dipterocarp forests above these elevations, mangroves, peat swamps, beach and fresh water swamps and heath (keranga) forest. The following description is based mainly on Fox (15).
Closed broadleaved forests (NHC)
a) Lowland and hill dipterocarp forests presently (end 1980) constitute around 54% of the total forest area. Commercially they are the single most important forest formation of Sabah providing all the saw and veneer logs for export. Based on species dominance, the following sub-types could be distinguished:
lowland dipterocarp forest:
Parashorea malaanonan forest: P. malaanonan is the most abundant emergent species in the Darvel Bay hinterlands. The forest is a coastal type and Shorea guiso is usually present;
Parashorea tomentella/Eusideroxylon zwageri forest: this type is dominant over the north-eastern lowlands;
Shorea/Eusideroxylon swageri forest: this type is found mainly in the southeast;
Shorea/Dipterocarpus forest: this type occurs on poorer soils and locally within the proceeding three but is extensive in some areas. Much of the little known interior forest areas are provisionally placed in this type;
Parashorea malaanonan/Dryobalanops lanceolata forest: this is the most common association on shale and other non-sandstone hills in the west of the state but it occurs at lower elevations than the two following types;
hill dipterocarp forest:
Shorea forest: Selaugan Batu forest: the most frequent species of this type is Shorea laevis, and this type is found on steeper and higher hills;
Dipterocarpus/Shorea forest: this type occurs on sandstone escarpments in the east and north, mainly in coastal locations.
b) Montane dipterocarp forests constitute around 14% of the present forest area and occur above the zone of hill dipterocarp forests on elevations in the Crocker Range and central uplands. Main species occuring are Shorea platyclados, S. venulosa (on ultra basic rocks), S. monticola, S. laevis, Hopea montana, H. dyeri, Dipterocarpus ochraceus, Vatica dulitensis, V. umbonata. With increasing elevation these forests change over into oak-chestnut forests, and still higher, over 2 000m, are replaced by mossy forests rich in conifers and Ericaceae.
c) Mangroves cover 350 000 ha (7% of the total forest area) and possess some commercial importance. They are the main source of supply of fuelwood, small timber and poles, and chipwood (the last one of the order of 200 000 metric tons mainly exported to Japan). The main commercial species within this forest type are of the genera Rhisophora and Bruguiera, and on the seaward fringe of Avicennia and Sonneratia.
Two types of swamp palm are also included in the mangrove forest type, which are nipah (Nypa fructioans) and nibong (Oncosperma horrida). Nipah is a general utility species providing local products such as housing thatch, cigarette paper, sugar, alcohol, vinegar and salt. This species frequently occurs in pure stands. Nibong occurs in the drier zone of the mangrove forest.
d) Peat swamps are confined to the western and eastern coasts of the state. They cover relatively small areas and are principally confined to Klias peninsula. A 1966 report (2) mentions a total area of 65 000 ha (250 sq. miles). Most of the forests, however, have already been exploited in the past. Main constituent species on the western coast are: ramin (Gonystylus bancanus), jongkong (Dactylocladus stenostachys), Dryobalanops rappa, Shorea platycarpa, S. scabrida, S. tessmanniana and Hopea pentanervia. Some of these species occur also on poor padang (kerangas) soils. On the eastern coast main species are Shorea scabrida and Hopea pentanervia. Dryobalanops rappa is often replaced by D. beccarii. These swamps have similarities with dipterocarp forests on high-level alluvium, where common species are Dryobalanops beccarii, Shorea parvifolia, S. leprosula and Hopea beccarii. Neither Dryobalanops lanceolata nor any species of Parashorea are found in these swamp forests.
e) Beach and fresh water swamps constitute about 4% of the total forest area. Beach forests are restricted to sandy coastal soils where they occupy strips seldom more than a hundred metres in width. The main species is Casuarina equisetifolia. Fresh water swamps occur on areas liable to flood during the rainy season. These are usually rich in Dipterocarpus warburgii. Forests on alluvial soils near rivers are often rich in Shorea gysbertsiana and Dipterocarpus exalatus. Dipterocarpus oblongifolius is common along streams in hilly country.
f) Kerangas are non-commercial forests containing trees of poor form and small sizes and occur on white sandy soils and beach terraces at all elevations, or on weathered steep ridges at the higher elevations. Main species are: Casuarina, Agathis alba, Dacrydium, Tristania and infrequently, Shorea albida.
Scrub formations (nH)
Insignificant area is reported under this formation mainly occurring on rocky outcrops or degraded lands with exhausted soils.
1.1.2 Present situation of the woody vegetation
Present areas
The total area of the state is 7 394 000 ha (28 549 sq. miles) of which about 85% (6 285 000 ha) is covered with forest growth. (It may be useful to mention here that in the agriculture statistics prior to 1974 the total area of the state is mentioned as 29 388 sq. miles or 7 611 000 ha and as 7 371 000 ha (i.e. 28 459 sq. miles) in the FAO Production Yearbook (1978). For the present study the area figure of 7 394 000 has been accepted).
Annual reports of the Forest Department for the years 1975 and 1977 (10)(12) quote the following areas by main types:
| Forest types | Reported areas (in thousand ha and in brackets in sq. miles) | |
| 1975 | 1977 | |
| Lowland and hill dipterocarp forests | 2930 (11311) | 2652 (10241) |
| Montane dipterocarp forests | 772 (2979) | 772 (2979) |
| Mangroves | 365 (1411) | 351 (1357) |
| Beach and fresh water swamps (transitional) | 204 (787) | 194 (748) |
| Other forests (immature and disturbed) | 1268 (4896) | 1555 (6002) |
| All forest types | 5539 (21384) | 5524 (21329) |
The above areas were updated to end 1980 incorporating changes on account of shifting cultivation, transfer of land to permanent agriculture and reclassification of part of inaccessible montane forests into commercial forests; and tabulated as follows using the standard classification of this study:
Areas of natural woody vegetation estimated at end 1980
(in thousand ha)
| Category | NHCf1uv | NHCf1uc | NHCf1 | NHCf2i | NHCf2r | NHCf2 | NHCf | NHCa |
| Forest land | ||||||||
| Mixed dipterocarp | 1920 | 1280 | 3200 | 237 | 175 | 412 | 3612 | |
| Mangrove | 350 | 350 | 350 | |||||
| Beach and fresh water swamp | 190 | 190 | 190 | |||||
| “Other”1 | 845 | 845 | 845 | |||||
| Non-forest land | ||||||||
| Shifting cultivation | 1390 | |||||||
| Total | 1920 | 1280 | 3200 | 1622 | 175 | 1797 | 4997 | 1390 |
The following remarks are necessary:
the forest types appearing as rows in the above table correspond to the classification used by the Forest Department of Sabah. The categories appearing as columns correspond to the classification of natural woody vegetation used in this study;
the annual report of the Forest Department of Sabah is the main source of land use and forest type area information. The area figures for NHCf1uv and NHCf1uc viz. the virgin and logged-over forests respectively, are based on FAO (17). NHCf2r includes around 120 000 ha of national park area, 39 000 ha of virgin jungle and 15 000 ha of “amenity forests”. The actual total is 174 000 ha which has been rounded off to 175 000.
“other forests” class of the Forest Department includes two categories of the classification used in this study viz. logged-over forests (termed as ‘disturbed’) and regrowth from abandoned shifting cultivation. It also probably includes 155 000 ha of grasslands, where forest plantations probably are established. For the present study therefore, the class had to be portioned into NHCf1uc (1 280 000 ha) and NHCf2i (845 000 ha), excluding 155 000 ha of reported grassland areas 1;
NHCf2i includes 220 000 ha of montane forests in steep areas, 350 000 ha of mangrove forests, 190 000 ha of beach and fresh water swamp and 845 000 ha of immature forests which are classified by the Forest Department as “other forests” and 17 000 ha of domestic forests.
Ownership and legal status
There are three classes of ownership of the land in Sabah: (i) reserves; (ii) state lands and (iii) alienated lands. Under provisions of the Land Ordinance of 1930, all land which has neither been reserved for public purposes nor alienated by grant of lease or of title is declared to be state land and is within the disposition of the state government. The distribution of land according to ownership was, in 1975, as follows:
Legal classification of land in 1975
| Category | Area in thousand ha (in square miles) |
| Reserves | 2770 (10696) |
| State lands | 2768 (10688) |
| Other land | 1856 (7165) |
| All | 7394 (28549) |
Most of the existing forests are either located in “forest reserves” or in state lands. Forest reserves are supposed to be dedicated to sustained yield management and thus are of greatest potential for timber production or greatest value for watershed protection. The situation on the state lands is rather confusing and far from satisfactory. The government's policy has been to reserve in an orderly fashion land required for forestry and to make other land available to the public for agriculture development. Compared to 1975 the area of forest reserves in 1979 has increased by 868 000 ha, the total being now 3 638 000 ha.
For the purposes of forest management forest reserves have been further distinguished as follows:
Functional classification of forest reserves
| Category/function | Area as at October 1979 (in thousand ha) |
| Protection | 218 |
| Commercial | 3274 |
| Domestic | 17 |
| Amenity | 15 |
| Mangrove | 75 |
| Gene Reserves | 39 |
| Total | 3638 |
Protection forests are not supposed to be exploited or interfered with in any way as they are reserved for the maintenance of forest which is essential on climatic or physical grounds. But portions of them are now being logged. The main argument is that protection forests should be developed for multiple use. In recent years heavy timbered stands in amenity forests are also being affected by logging. Commercial forests are reserved for production of timber and other forest produce to meet the general demands of trade. Domestic forests are reserved for production of timber and other forest produce to be utilised by the local inhabitants only.
Forest management
Forest inventory
As part of the Canadian bilateral aid programme a forest inventory of the entire state of Sabah was carried out in 1969–72 based on aerial photointerpretation and ground sampling. Two sets of photographs were flown one at 1:25 000 and the other at 1:40 000. The final forest cover type map was made at 1:50 000. Seven survey units were recognized which, based on aerial photointerpretation, were further stratified by topography, crown size and entity. Following distribution of commercial forest areas by residencies and types (according to commercial volume) was found:
Distribution of commercial forest areas (14)
(in thousand ha)
| Residency (Survey unit no.) | Forest type | |||||
| Dipterocarp forests | Mangrove forests | |||||
| High value > 89 m3/ha | Average value 62–89 m3/ha | Low value 35–62 m3/ha | Total | |||
| Tawau (4, 5, 6) | 1104 | 1104 | 64 | |||
| Sandakan (1, 2, 3) | 885 | 217 | 234 | 1336 | 104 | |
| West coast, Kudat, | ||||||
| Labuan and Interior | 105 | 756 | 228 | 1089 | 48 | |
| Residency (7) | ||||||
| Total | 3529 | 216 | ||||
Growth and yield studies
A detailed study on the subject was made by FAO (16). The following tables which may be considered as typical for Sabah show the stand structure of virgin forest, damage due to logging and stand development over time under alternative treatments.
Stand table for virgin forests (16)
(number of stems/ha)
| Diameter class in cm (girth class in ft) | Lowland dipterocarps | Hill dipterocarps | ||||
| All species | Dipterocarps | All commercial species | All species | Dipterocarps | All commercial species | |
| 10 – 19 (1–2) | 269 | 21 | 21 | 208 | 43 | 53 |
| 19 – 29 (2–3) | 82 | 15.8 | 25 | 69 | 17.1 | 20 |
| 29 – 39 (3–4) | 20.0 | 4.4 | 5.4 | 32 | 10.3 | 11.9 |
| 39 – 49 (4–5) | 14.1 | 4.9 | 7.4 | 24 | 6.6 | 8.5 |
| 49 – 58 (5–6) | 13.8 | 6.9 | 8.9 | 9.3 | 4.1 | 5.3 |
| 58 – 68 (6–7) | 6.4 | 4.8 | 6.2 | 6.2 | 2.3 | 3.3 |
| 68 – 78 (7–8) | 4.0 | 1.8 | 3.5 | 4.3 | 1.8 | 2.2 |
| 78 – 87 (8–9) | 2.3 | 1.5 | 2.2 | 2.5 | 1.0 | 1.4 |
| > 87 (> 9) | 10.6 | 8.8 | 10.6 | 8.2 | 6.4 | 6.8 |
| Total | 422.2 | 69.9 | 90.2 | 363.5 | 92.6 | 112.4 |
Stand table after logging (16)
| Category of trees | Nicholson (1) | Fox (3) (> 1' girth) | ||||||
| 1–6' girth | All trees | Treated 1 | Control 1 | |||||
| Trees/ha | % | Trees/ha | % | Trees/ha | % | Trees/ha | % | |
| Fallen or broken | 16.3 | 32.0 | 17.3 | 29.8 | 17.2 | 43.7 | 28.3 | 61.7 |
| Bark damage and no (or inconsequential) crown damage | 4.4* | 8.7* | 5.4* | 9.3* | 3.3* | 8.5* | 3.0* | 6.5* |
| Consequential crown damage only | 1.6 | 3.1 | 1.9 | 3.2 | 1.1 | 2.8 | 1.5 | 3.3 |
| Bark damage and consequential crown damage | 0.7* | 1.4* | 0.8* | 1.4* | 1.0* | 2.5* | 1.1* | 2.4* |
| Subtotal with consequential damage | 23.0 | 45.2 | 25.4 | 43.7 | 22.6 | 57.5 | 33.9 | 73.9 |
| Remaining trees with inconsequential crown damage | 4.1 | 8.0 | 5.2 | 8.9 | 4.2 | 10.7 | 5.1 | 11.1 |
| Undamaged | ||||||||
| (a) good form | 18.0 | 35.4 | 20.2 | 34.8 | 12.5 | 31.8 | 6.9 | 15.0 |
| (b) poor form | 5.8 | 11.4 | 7.3 | 12.6 | ||||
| Subtotal with inconsequential or no damage | 27.9 | 54.8 | 32.7 | 56.3 | 16.7 | 42.5 | 12.0 | 26.1 |
| Total | 50.9 | 100 | 58.1 | 100 | 39.3 | 100 | 45.9 | 100 |
1 ‘Treated’ and ‘Control’ refer to the treatment of climber cutting prior to logging.
* Add these figures in each column to get total bark damage, all considered of consequence.
Advance growth in logged-over forests (trees per ha) (16)
(with ‘inconsequential damage’)
| Forest type | Diameter class in cm (girth in ft) | |||||
| 10–19 (1–2) | 19–29 (2–3) | 29–39 (3–4) | 39–49 (4–5) | 49–58 (5–6) | 10–58 (1–6) | |
| Lowland dipterocarp | 6.2 | 6.1 | 4.3 | 2.8 | 2.5 | 21.9 |
| Hill dipterocarp | 6.8 | 3.6 | 2.2 | 1.5 | 1.8 | 15.9 |
| Model stand used for projections | 6.5 | 4.8 | 3.3 | 2.2 | 1.81 | 18.6 |
Projection of untreated advance growth 1
(girth in one foot classes and DBH in 10 cm classes) (16)
| Period | Size classes | |||||||||||||
| 1–2 | 2–3 | 3–4 | 4–5 | 5–6 | 6–7 | 7–8 | 8–9 | 9–10 | 10–11 | 11–12 | ||||
| 10–19 | 19–29 | 29–39 | 39–49 | 49–58 | 58–68 | 68–78 | 78–87 | 87–97 | 97–107 | 107–116 | Total | MAI | ||
| Year 0 no.of stems | 6.5 | 4.8 | 3.3 | 2.2 | 1.8 | 18.6 | ||||||||
| Year 30 no.of stems | 4.8 | 3.6 | 2.4 | 1.6 | 1.3 | 13.7 | ||||||||
| Merch.Vol | 10.6 | 9.8 | 10.1 | 30.5 | 1.0 | |||||||||
| Year 40 no.of stems | 4.4 | 3.2 | 2.2 | 1.5 | 1.2 | 12.5 | ||||||||
| Merch.Vol. | 14.1 | 13.4 | 11.7 | 11.5 | 50.7 | 1.3 | ||||||||
| Year 60 no.of stems | 3.6 | 2.6 | 1.8 | 1.2 | 1.0 | 10.2 | ||||||||
| Merch.Vol. | 21.9 | 20.4 | 17.2 | 13.6 | 13.1 | 86.2 | 1.4 | |||||||
1 Projections are given in terms of the number of stems/ha and volume/ha by size classes.
Projection of treated advance growth (16)
(girth in one foot classes and DBH in 10 cm classes)
| Size classes | |||||||||||||||
| Time | 4–5 | 5–6 | 6–7 | 7–8 | 8–9 | 9–10 | 10–11 | 11–12 | 12–13 | 13–14 | 14–15 | 15–16 | |||
| Period | 39–49 | 49–58 | 58–68 | 68–78 | 78–87 | 87–97 | 97–107 | 107–116 | 116–126 | 126–136 | 136–146 | 146–155 | Total | MAI | |
| Year 30 Stand | 2.0 | 3.5 | 3.2 | 2.3 | 1.7 | 0.8 | 0.2 | 0.02 | 13.7 | ||||||
| Merch.Vol | 13.9 | 14.0 | 13.3 | 7.6 | 2.3 | 0.3 | 51.4 | 1.7 | |||||||
| Year 40 Stand | 1.4 | 2.8 | 3.0 | 2.3 | 1.6 | 0.9 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 12.4 | ||||||
| Merch.Vol | 12.2 | 18.3 | 18.0 | 15.3 | 10.2 | 3.9 | 1.5 | 79.4 | 2.0 | ||||||
| Year 60 Stand | 0.6 | 1.7 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 1.6 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.04 | 10.2 | |||||
| Merch.Vol | 3.6 | 13.3 | 22.0 | 23.7 | 20.9 | 16.3 | 9.9 | 3.7 | 0.8 | 114.2 | 1.9 | ||||
The following indications are required on stand table projections given above:
for untreated stands a growth rate of 1 cm/year was assumed between 10 and 58 cm diameter (1–6 ft girth) on a uniform basis;
for treated stands growth rate assumed was 1.5 cm/year again on a uniform basis for all trees between 10 and 58 cm diameter (1–6 ft girth);
a uniform rate of 1% mortality was assumed for both untreated and treated stands.
The above projections indicate availability of about 86 m3/ha of standing volume of commercial trees after a cycle of 60 years without any treatment. In treated conditions yield expectation is 114 m3/ha. It must, however, be kept in kind that the above projections are tentative and require growth data to be verified.
Silvicultural treatment
The following is extracted from document (16):
“In Sabah, with similar forests to Peninsular Malaysia it was natural that the system of management would be the Malayan Uniform System. The first areas were treated in 1955 and for a number of years there was a rapid expansion of treatment into all major logging camps with annual areas such as 13 500 ha being treated in 1963. Some divergence from the system in Peninsular Malaysia followed experimentation in Sabah (5). These divergences centered mainly on the importance of advance growth for intermediate yields and the reduction of logging damage to them”.
“With the huge expansion of the annual coupe in the late sixties and early seventies it was impossible for silvicultural treatments to keep pace and a large backlog of untreated forest has accumulated. In early 1977 all treatment was stopped, after the appearance of a paper by Chai and Udarbe (11), which cast doubt on the usefulness of treatment considering the very high rates of damage being caused in current logging”.
Forest utilization
Log harvesting (14)
The terms and conditions laid down in special licences and concession agreements, as well as the Forest Enactment (1968) and Forest Rules (1969) are the basis of commercial forest exploitation in the state. Major control on felling/yield is by area and the company is allowed to work one coupe, specified in terms of the number of acres to be logged, the species that must be felled and the minimum girth limits. Coupes must, as far as is practical, be systematically logged according to a logging plan which the company submits to the Forest Department for approval. The various types of licences and concessions agreements are the following:
concession (licence agreement) is a 21 year agreement (except in the case of the Sabah Foundation where the term is 100 years) giving the right to log a given area of forest reserve by fixed annual coupe subject to various terms and conditions;
special licence is a licence valid for up to 10 years to log an area of forest usually with a fixed annual coupe subject to various terms and conditions similar to those for a licence agreement. The licence may be issued for both state land and forest reserve;
form I licence is a licence valid for one year only to log a given area of forest subject to various terms and conditions. The licence may be issued for both state land and forest reserve.
The distribution of existing virgin forest, under various forms of contract, is given below:
Estimated area of unlogged natural forest - January 1980 (17)
(in thousand ha)
| Category 1 | Forest reserve | State land | Total |
| Concessions (10) | 841 | 28 | 869 |
| Special licences (109) | 619 | 163 | 782 |
| Form I licences (640) | 38 | 39 | 77 |
| Licences pending (7) | 235 | 67 | 301 |
| Totals | 1 733 | 297 | 2 029 |
The history of log harvesting in Sabah is given in paper (16). The real control of forest exploitation from 1919 to 1952 was in the hands of British Borneo Timber Company (B.B.T.), which had a monopoly of all timber export. In the early twenties they started with high-lead logging, which was later abandoned as it could not compete with hand logging methods (kuda-kuda). After 1952 there was a great increase in logging with the entering into the industry of three other large overseas firms and later by a further eight local companies. Almost all of this effort was for export logs as the local demand was so small. By the late fifties almost all logging of any significance was mechanized, with most firms using crawler tractors, and two also using high-lead systems in rather more rugged country. Till 1960 some 7.2 million m3 (254 million cft) of logs had been produced. The annual production was 2.16 million m3 in 1960, 4.16 million m3 in 1965 and 6.56 million m3 in 1970. Based on the above the estimated total log production during 1961–70 comes to 42.9 millions m3 (1 514 million cft).
The log outturn by years from 1971 to 1980 is given below:
| Year | Production thousand m3 (million cft) | Year | Production thousand m3 (million cft) | |
| 1971 | 9 375 (331) | 1976 | 12 587 (444) | |
| 1972 | 6 673 (236) | 1977 | 12 980 (458) | |
| 1973 | 11 053 (390) | 1978 | 13 109 (463) | |
| 1974 | 7 761 (274) | 1979 | 10 800 (381) | est. |
| 1975 | 9 095 (321) | 1980 | 10 000 (353) | |
| Total (1971–76) | 43 957 (1 552) | Total (1976–80) | 59 476 (2 099) | |
(16) estimates that the production in 1977 amounted to 14 million m3 and was obtained from an area of 162 000 ha. This gives an average yield at 86 m3/ha. The latest data, based on FAO (17), provides the following estimates:
Yield from exploitation of the natural forest
| Type of licence | Area of study 2 | Yield m3/ha | ||
| Area (ha) | Volume (m3) | Mean | Range | |
| Concessions 1 | 150 166 | 16 752 187 | 111.6 | 66 – 142 |
| Sabah Foundation | 121 028 | 7 814 161 | 64.6 | 32 – 105 |
| Special licences | 304 225 | 16 289 433 | 53.5 | 20 – 105 |
| Total | 575 419 | 40 855 781 | 71.0 | 20 – 142 |
| Relogging | 11 934 | 215 549 | 18.1 | 10 – 23 |
1 Excluding Sabah Foundation
2 Covering the period 1970 to 1979, mainly 1975 onwards
