Part II
COUNTRY BRIEFS (continued)

PAPUA NEW GUINEA (continued)

1.1.3 Present situation of the growing stock

“Forest Resources in the Asia and Far East Region” by FAO gives 100 m³/ha as volume of all species above 50 cm DAB of which 30 m³/ha correspond to the commercial species.

Another report gives as total growing stock for an area of 1.8 million ha (including all undeveloped areas for which timber rights were purchased in 1974) a volume of all trees above 15 cm DAB of 104.6 m³/ha.

A timber inventory in the Ioma area finds a volume of about 160 m³ per ha of wood for chips above 20 cm DAB whereas the volume above 50 cm DAB is about 75 m³/ha. A deduction of 20% for defects should be taken (7).

For the Vanimo forest the average volume above 50 cm DBH is 60 m³/ha, and the gross total volume above 15 cm DBH ranges from 127 m³/ha but with an average of 149 m³/ha over a total area of more than 200 000 ha.

A forest inventory over 2 million ha gives a volume above 50 cm diameter of 61 m³/ha and for pulpwood (above 20 cm) of 120 m³/ha.

The only figures available for coniferous forests are those of Araucaria forest in Jimmi (Highlands) with a volume of 61 m³/ha above 48 cm DAB and a figure of 33–77 m³ of Podocarpus for the same minimum diameter (6). For this study a figure of 140 m³ per ha as VOB (DBH>10 cm) is taken. It is interesting to note the high stocking of the Terminalia brassii forests in New Britain which contain a volume of 245.4 m³/ha (above 48 cm DAB) (6).

For broadleaved forests the volume actually commercialized (VAC) is approximately 30 m³/ha for selective logging and 65 m³/ha for chipping. Chipping however will, for the time being, not be expanded (23), and therefore the figure of 30 m³/ha is used in this study. For pine forest a VAC of 35 m³/ha is used.

Growing stock estimated at end 1980
(totals in million m³)

1.2 Plantations

1.2.1 Introduction

When the Forestry Department was established in 1946 reforestation was considered as a primary objective of forest policy. This latter stipulated that all areas loggedover should be reforested to sustain in perpetuity its established scale of operations. As a result initial reforestation programmes were developed in three locations: the Wau-Bulolo area, the Brown river area (near Port Moresby) and the Keravat area on New Britain. In the Wau-Bulolo area Araucaria spp. were planted in the logged forests and adjoining grasslands and later on also as enrichment plantings in the logged-over forests. Grazing of some 2 000 heads of cattle on 4 000 ha of plantations as a cooperate venture of some tribes has been successful and reduced tending costs (8) (17). In the late sixties the Forestry Department discontinued planting of hoop pine because of its susceptibility to diseases and insects (5) (16). The supply of a local plywood factory is based on these Araucaria plantations. In 1967 the monthly coupe was 4 700 m³ of which 1 400 m³ came from plantation thinnings (Morel, in “Tropical Rain Forests of the Far East” by T.C. Whitmore). Also pines (P. khasya and P. merkusii) were used for reforestation. Large plantations of kamarere (Eucalyptus deglupta) and teak have been established at Kerevat and of teak near Port Moresby.

In the Central Highlands the extensive grasslands have been used for afforestation to supply the heavily populated districts where wood material in any form is scarce and costs of obtaining wood from elsewhere is high. Planting programmes were developed at two major locations: in the Goroka valley at Tranvo Asara and in the Waghi Valley of the Western Highland district. In the Goroka valley Pinus caribaea is the most successful species below 1 000 m altitude and P. patula above 1 800 m. P. khasya grows well below 1 800 m but is subject to dead topping. In the Waghi valley Eucalyptus robusta and E. grandis have been used, aimed also at producing low cost fuel for the expanding tea industry (8). Multiple use of the plantations with introduction of desirable legumes and cattle grazing have been carried out successfully (17) (21).

Small farm woodlots have been established throughout Papua New Guinea, each in the order of 0.1–0.5 ha (21).

Following the clearfelling for chip production in Gogol (Madang) attempts have been made to reforest the land. But removal of the forest cover resulted in an upward movement of the water table to lie above the surface and the initially planned Eucalyptus deglupta plantations could not be established and instead Terminalia brassii was used (21).

Much research has been done on plantations. At least 18 pine species from various countries (5) but also a variety of other species were tried on different altitudes and locations.

1.2.2 Areas of established plantations

Good statistics exist on areas covered by forest plantations, especially in documents (1), (2), (10), (17), (18) and (20). They have been compiled in the following tables:

Industrial plantations

Areas of established industrial plantations estimated at end 1980
(in thousand ha)

Other plantations

Areas of established non-industrial plantations estimated at end 1980
(in thousand ha)

All plantations

Areas of established plantations estimated at end 1980
(in thousand ha)

1.2.3 Plantation characteristics

They are summarized in the following table.

Plantation characteristics

¹ “Forest Resources in the Asia and Far East Region” (1976)

2. Present trends

2.1 Natural woody vegetation

2.1.1 Deforestation

In the highlands a complex system of horticulture was already practised as long as 2 300 years ago. The majority of the present population which was constituted through an irregular growth over a long period of time, is dispersed and engaged in shifting cultivation. This practise has affected much of the forest over the centuries. Short fallow rotations and fire have caused extensive grasslands. It is calculated that every person requires a land area of 1.8 ha for his shifting cultivation for an average fallow period of 10 years varying from 3 to 20 years. The present use of chainsaws tends to increase the fallow period through clearing of primary forest where crops have less pest infestation (24) (25). Population growth which at the moment is about 3% causes further clearing of primary forest.

Mining destruction in the past has been restricted to limited areas of alluvial gold bearing sediments. But nowadays the copper mining on Boungainville island causes a massive deforestation in the mountainous areas and further impact of sludge residue is expected. Planned major roading programmes to open areas of the Sepik and Western districts will cause large destruction (3). Programmes of cash crop plantations such as oil palms, coconut palms, cacao and others occupy large areas of primary forest.

Average annual deforestation
(in thousand ha)

2.1.2 Degradation

Fire is a major cause of degradation, especially around the villages and towns. Fuelwood collection in the lowlands is hardly a problem but on the highlands it causes degradation of the existing forests and even large scale deforestation.

2.1.3 Trends in forest utilisation

It seems likely that the demand for timber from abroad will be steady or increase because of the reduced availability of timber from other countries of the region. The production of hardwood chips probably will increase slowly. The fast growth of this industry did not indeed materialise as the quantity of chipwood per ha turned out to be lower than expected and the international demand for this product remains at a low level (23).

2.1.4 Areas and growing stock at end 1985

Taking into account the slight increase of deforestation rates with population growth and an estimated 100 000 ha increase of the area of natural parks the projected areas and growing stock at end 1985 are as follows:

Areas of natural woody vegetation estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)

Growing stock estimated at end 1985
(in million m³)

2.2 Plantations

It has been estimated that the rate of plantation establishment will slowly increase. This may result result in the following figures of established plantations at end 1985:

Industrial plantations

Areas of established industrial plantations estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)

Other plantations

Areas of established non-industrial plantations estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)

All plantations

Areas of established plantations estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)

Bibliography

(1) Department of Forests 1964 “National Progress Report on Forestry-Period 1962–1964” - FAO/APFC 64/3.20 - Port Moresby

(2) FAO 1971 “Report on a Study Tour of Forest Plantations in Papua New Guinea - January – February 1971” - by J.M. Fielding - FO: SF/MAL 12 - Working Paper No. 12 - Rome

(3) White, K.J. 1971 “The Lowland Rain Forest in Papua and New Guinea” - in Symposium of Pacific Science Association on Planned Utilization of the Lowland Tropical Forests - (Cipayung (Indonesia), 12–14 August 1971)

(4) Havel, J.J. 1972 “New Guinea Forests - Structure, Composition and Management” - in Australia Forestry - October 1972

(5) White, K.J. and A.L. Cameron 1972 “Silvicultural Techniques in Papua New Guinea Forest Plantations” - Division of Silviculture - Department of Forests - Bull. No.1 - Port Moresby

(6) Minister for Forests 1973 “New Horizons - Forestry in Papua New Guinea” - Brisbane

(7) FAO 1974 “Appraisal of a Proposal for the Construction of an Integrated Pulp, Sawnwood and Veneer Industry in the Ioma Area” - FAO No. TA 3283 - Rome

(8) FAO 1974 “Some Aspects of Reforestation in Papua New Guinea” - by D. Dun and R.T. Fenton - FO: PAP/73/007 - Project Report - Rome

(9) FAO 1975 “Forest Legislation - Papua New Guinea - Project Findings and Recommendations” - FO: DP/PNG/74/051 - Terminal Report - Rome

(10) Lamb, D. 1975 “Kunjingini plantations 1965–1975” - Tropical Forestry Research Note Sr. 24 - Port Moresby

(11) Paijmans, K. 1975 “Vegetation Map of Papua New Guinea” and “Explanatory Notes to the Vegetation Map of Papua New Guinea” - Land Research Series No. 35 - Melbourne

(12) Womersley, J.S. 1975 “Management of the Mangrove Forests - Utilization versus Conservation with Special Reference to the Forests of the Papuan Gulf” - in Proceedings of International Symposium of Biology and Management of Mangroves, 8–11 October 1974 - Hawaii

(13) Godlee, J.L.R. and White, K.J. 1976 “Enrichment Planting with Araucaria hunsteinii” - Tropical Forestry Research Note Sr. 33 - Port Moresby

(14) Office of Forests 1976 “Compendium of Statistics 1976” - Boroko

(15) Asian Development Bank 1976 “The Forest Economy of Papua New Guinea”

(16) White, K.J. 1976 “Notes on Enrichment Planting in Lowland Rain Forests of Papua New Guinea” - Tropical Forestry Research Note Sr. 31 - Port Moresby

(17) FAO 1977 “Policies and Strategies for Agricultural Development - Papua New Guinea” - Bangkok

(18) Office of Forests 1977 “National Progress Report on Forestry” (Period 1974–1976) - Papua New Guinea - FO: APFC/77/2.17 - Boroko

(19) White, K.J. 1977 “Forest Management Requirements in Lowland Rain Forest in Papua New Guinea” - Tropical Forestry Research Note Sr. 35 - Port Moresby

(20) Office of Forests 1978 “Facts and Figures - 1978 Edition” - Boroko

(21) FAO 1978 “Brief on Papua New Guinea” - Rome

(22) Yauieb, A.M.D. 1978 “Land Tenure and Forest Products Utilisation - P.N.G. Problems and Solutions”-presented at the Forestry Department (SGS)/Development Studies Centre on Forest Policy and Forest Products in National Development and the Role of Foreign Aid (Canberra, 4.7 July 1978)

(23) Yauieb, A.M.D 1978 “Complete Integrated Utilisation of Tropical Forests - Papua New Guinea” Experience" - 8th World Forestry Congress - FID II/20–2 - Jakarta

(24) Booth, H.E. 1979 “Notes on Subsistence Agriculture and Its Effects on Forests” - prepared for Forest Development Study, Central Province - Rome

(25) FAO 1979 “Forest Development Study, Central Province - Papua New Guinea Mission Report: the Forest Resources and their Industrial Development” - TCP/PNG/8801 - Rome

(26) Ministry of Forests 1979 “White Paper - Revised National Forest Policy” - Hohola

(27) Office of Forests 1979 “Facts and Figures - 1979 Edition” - Boroko

(28) Lindell, C.R. 1980 “Forestry Development in Papua New Guinea” - in Journal of Forestry, vol. 78 No. 3 (March 1980)

(29) Office of Forests 1980 “Progress Report 1973–1979 Papua New Guinea” - prepared for the Eleventh Commonwealth Forestry Conference - Port Moresby

THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippines are an archipelago of some 7 100 islands located between the latitudes 4°23' and 21°25' North and longitudes 116°55' and 126°34' East, covering a land area of 299 400 km² (a figure often rounded off to 300 000 km² or 30 million ha). The country is divided into four geographic regions which are further subdivided into 13 administrative regions and 71 provinces as given below (11):

The Philippines islands have arisen from the sea as a result of a very complex pattern of continental drift and volcanic activities. Nearly all the islands have rugged interior uplands rising usually to between 1 250 and 2 500 m. The highest mountain, Mt. Apo in Mindanao, reaches 2 954 m while Mt. Pulong in Luzon is about 2 929 m high. Lowlands are scarce and even in the largest islands the costal plains are rarely as much as 15 km wide. The most important lowland area is the central plain of Luzon, but there are other important agricultural areas in the Cagayan valley in the north-east of Luzon, the Bicol plain in the south-east of Luzon, the Agusan and Cotabato plains in Mindanao and the plains in western Negros and eastern Panay.

There are a large number of extinct and dormant volcanoes in the Philippines. Today, about a dozen are still active. The most famous of the active volcanoes is Hibok-Hibok on Camiguin island just north of Mindanao which erupted extremely violently in 1948. Mt. Mayon erupted in 1968. Most volcanoes eject acidic lava which does not make such good soils as basic lavas. The islands exhibit great diversity in topographic features. Bohol is karstic. Cebu is coralline, while the rest of the islands are either volcanic or alluvial.

The country enjoys an equatorial climate. The mean annual temperature varies from 22° to 31°C, the differences arising mainly due to elevation. It is affected by both the southeast Asian summer and winter airflows, namely the southwest monsoon in the summer months and the northeast monsoon and trade winds in the winter months. In addition typhoons originate in the intertropical front which in the region of the Philippines lies over the island of Mindanao for much of its time. Typhoons account for between a quarter and a third of the annual rainfall and sweep north and west across the central and northern parts of the archipelago. They occur mainly during the months of July to November.

The annual amount of precipitation ranges from about 1 500 mm to about 4 500 mm though in the area of General Santcs and Zamboanga (south and southwest respectively of Mindanao), in the southeast Negros, in Palawan, in Laguna (southeast of Manila) and in northern Luzon there are small rain shadow pockets where the annual rainfall is considerably less than 1 500 mm. Rainfall distribution depends a great deal upon topographical features and resultant rain shadows. The east coast receives annual amounts in excess of 3 000 mm, which is largely concentrated in the winter months when the northeast monsoon is at its peak. The absence of rainfall from typhoons in eastern Mindanao is counterbalanced by the occurrence of more rain associated with the intertropical front, except for those areas in rain shadows. The central and eastern Visayas are largely sheltered from the influence of both the northeast monsoon and the typhoons, and their rainfall is mainly a result of the southwest monsoon and occurs during the summer months. The Bureau of Forest Development (BFD) has divided the country into four climatic types for forest management purposes and assigned a tentative cutting cycle to each under the Selective Logging System as follows (19):

• type 1: climate with two pronounced seasons and a dry season between November and April: cutting cycle 45 years;

• type 2: climate without a dry season and with a very pronouced maximum rainfall between November and January: cutting cycle 35 years:

• type 3: climate without very pronounced season but relatively dry between November and April: cutting cycle 40 years;

• type 4: climate with rainfall more or less evenly distributed throughout the year: cutting cycle 30 years.

The country had an estimated population in 1979 of 49.5 million, with an average population density of 165 persons/km². Of these approximately 45% or 23 million constitute the agricultural population. Total number of inhabitants was 7.6 million in 1903, 19.2 million in 1948 and 27.1 million in 1960. It has been growing at a rate of 3% annually, and it has been projected that the population will reach 85 million by the year 2 000 (13).

The number of shifting cultivators is very imperfectly known. The latest 1977 BFD survey shows around 380 000 families living on forest land and practising shifting cultivation but it is further stated that this number represents only half of the total number of shifting cultivators in the country (19).

1. Present situation

1.1 Natural woody vegetation

1.1.1 Description of the vegetation types

The original vegetation of the archipelago was essentially forest. It is estimated that there are some 8 000 species of flowering plants of which over 3 000 species are tree species which can attain a diameter at breast height of 30 cm or more. Many of the species are endemics though the number will presumably be reduced as the taxonomic knowledge of southeast Asianflora progresses and more collections of plant material are made. Five very broad forest types are recognized: - mixed dipterocarp, molave, mangrove, mossy and pine forests. The following description of vegetation is mainly based on a BFD report (22).

Closed broadleaved forests (NHC)

1. Mixed dipterocarp forests occur generally up to an elevation of approximately 800 m on well drained soils and on the lower slopes of mountains in the localities where the dry season is not pronounced. The formation is dominated by dipterocarp species, which supply most of the timber produced. Ten to eleven species make up the bulk of the commercial volume in the forests: apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus), bagtikan (Parashorea plicata), white lauan (Pentacme contorta), tiaong or tangile (Shorea polysperma), almon (S. almon), red lauan (S. negrosensis), mayapis (S. squamata), yakal (S. astylosa), guijo (S. guiso) and hagakhak (Dipterocarpus warburgii).

   The group known as lauan, or Philippine mahogany in the trade, is composed mainly of the first six Shorea listed above, plus Parashorea and Pentacme. These species have woods which are very similar in most respects, and have such similar ecological requirements that they are found growing together. On the basis of species dominance five subtypes of forests are recognized (22): lauan, lauan-apitong, yakal-lauan, lauanhagakhak and tangile - oak (montane) forests:

   • lauan forest occurs in lowland areas and foothills up to an elevation of about 400 m and where there is no pronounced dry season. It is dominated by the red lauan and white lauan species of Shorea and primarily by red lauan (Shorea negrosensis), mayapis (S. squamata), tangile (S. polysperma), almon (S. almon), and white lauan (S. contorta). Bagtikan (Parashorea plicata) and apitong (Dipterocarpus grandiflorus) are also common. The forest varies greatly depending upon the site quality, ranging from typical tropical rainforest with 50 m or more tall, emergent trees with well developed crowns in much of Mindanao to no more than half that height with poor lopsided crowns and an uncharacteristic flat even upper canopy edge caused by strong winds and typhoons as found along the eastern Pacific coast in the northern tip of Luzon (Claveria), and in the islands of Quezon and Samar. Similarly there is as expected a comparable bole size difference and a greatly reduced yield of not more than a half of that found in normal good forest as occurs generally in Mindanao and Basilan;

   • lauan-apitong forest occurs where there is a pronounced dry season and only at low elevations. The forest profile is not so tall, is more open and has denser shrub and ground flora layers than the lauan subtype. Many species are deciduous;

   • yakal-lauan forest is found where the pronounced dry season is short and mainly in narrow belts on low coastal hills of volcanic origin. The species are often deciduous to semi-deciduous. The area covered by this forest subtype was never large, and the forest has been largely cleared for cultivation;

   • lauan-hagakhak forest is restricted to areas without a dry season and with a high water table. It is particularly common in river bottoms and along stream beds, Dipterocarpus warburgii is common. Areas originally covered with this subtype have been largely cleared for rice cultivation. The timber volume is low compared with the other forest subtypes;

   • montane forests cover the areas extending from the upper limits of the lauan and the lauan-apitong type to the lower limits of the pine or mossy forest types, from 400 to 500 m above sea level up to 800 to 900 m. The rainfall is more evenly distributed throughout the year and the relative humidity is constantly higher than in the adjacent forests of lower altitudes. In the lower transition zone one may find scattered specimens of dipterocarps belonging to the forest types bordering below. It is essentially a non-dipterocarp formation with tangile (Shorea polysperma) and oak (Quercus spp.) as main species with occasional Hopea, Vatica, Agathis, Cinnamomum, Tristania and Eugenia species.

2. Mossy forests consist of dwarfish tree vegetation clothed with clinging mosses and liverworts and is found on high mountainous regions above the tangile-oak type. In northern Luzon slopes and dry ridges it is replaced naturally by Benguet pine. The ecology of this forest type is characterized by a relatively low temperature, high and uniform humidity in form of rain and fog throughout the year, short duration of sunshine and strong winds. This forest is more valuable for protective or watershed functions rather than for its commercial value. Some timber species such as Philippine oak (Lithocarpus spp.) are associated with this forest but are not exploited commercially.

3. The molave forest occurs in regions with a very distinct wet and dry season. They are typical for the limestone soils in the coastal areas, which are usually quite shallow and excessively drained. During the dry season, there is often the impression of semi-arid conditions. A number of trees in the molave association shed their leaves every year during the dry season. Occurring either in isolated patches or blending with the other forest types, woods of the few species belonging to this type are highly valued for their natural beauty and durability. This forest includes several species of Pterocarpus, Afzelia rhomboidia, molave (Vitex parviflora) and dao (Dracontomelum dao). Since the sites of these forests are easily accessible, most of the original forests have been destroyed by exploitation. A relatively well preserved molave forest can still be seen in the narrow coastal plain west of the Zambales mountains.

4. Mangroves occur in tidal flats bordering coastal areas and along mouth of rivers where water is brackish. These forests used to be the source of tan bark for the tannin extract industry but now the wood is used more for fuel and charcoalmaking. Before its ban, sizeable quantities of wood were exported purportedly for rayon making. Main tree species are Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Ceriops tagal, C. roxburgiana, Brugiera gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, B. cylindrica, and B. sexangula.

   • Further upstream, where the water is not so brackish any more, nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) may form extensive and dense stands, which are a major source of roofing materials in coastal areas.

Coniferous formations (NS)

The pine forests occupy the highland regions of the Caraballa-Cordillera mountain ranges in northern Luzon, Tarlac-Zambales mountain ranges in western Luzon and the high mountains of Mindoro island.

There are two species of pines found in the Philippines forming pure stands: Benguet pine (Pinus insularis) and Mindoro pine (P. merkusii). While Benguet pine forest form extensive stands in the mountains of northern Luzon, the Mindoro pine occupies only an estimate of 5–6 000 ha in two isolated areas in northern part of the Zambales mountains in Luzon and in northern Mindoro. The altitudinal range of Benguet pine extends from about 700 to 1 800 m. The two known Mindoro pine forests occupy an area mainly between 100 and 500 m elevation.

Because of its silvicultural characteristics, the Mindoro pine has practically no economic importance in the Philippines. The Benguet pine, which is exclusively used for mining purposes in northern Luzon, however is planted now all over the islands. Pines are also tapped for their resins.

Scrub formations (nH)

Insignificant area is reported under this formation.

1.1.2 Present situation of the woody vegetation

Present areas

The first nationwide inventory conducted during 1962–68 still constitutes the baseline source of information. The year of completion of this inventory in the various geographic regions was 1968 in Mindanao, 1967 in Luzon and 1968 in Visayas.

The results derived from the first nationwide inventory are updated annually by the BFD and published under the title “Philippines Forestry Statistics”. The following figures on land use and forest classes for the years 1970 ans 1979 respectively are taken from this source (2) (17):

Forest type and land use in the Philippines
(as reported in the “Philippines Forestry Statistics”)