SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF AQUACULTURE

THE ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE IN LANGUEDOC-ROUSSILLON (FRANCE)

Presented by Alain BERGER - University of MONPELLIER

From an economic viewpoint, fishing, whether in lagoons or at sea, is a harvesting activity. It involves a predatory activity in a natural environment, using more or less sophisticated and efficient methods.

The major problem arising at planning level is to adapt fishing to the potential of renewable stock. Two optimum situations can thus be defined from a biological viewpoint, fishable optimum corresponding to the maximum fish supply permitting the renewal of stocks and from an economical viewpoint, a fishable optimum which is profitable. Theoretical analysis shows that these two optimums do not coincide.

Aquaculture, in its most modern form, is an agrarian type of farming based on space and biological potentials. Whether practised in a natural or totally artificial environment, aquaculture leads to technical and biological constraints which must first be resolved. Its transition from the experimental to the production stages creates problems for production coasts and a minimum price level for marketing.

Except in the case of lagoons where the two activities can exist simultaneously and enter into competition for the use of the biomass, encounter between fishing and aquaculture is purely an economic one. It is revealed in the actual cost of the products when they are the same or interchangeable, in the quantities available on the local, national or international markets and the capacity of these markets to absorb them. Access to these markets creates a common problem of prices, sales and processing.

Shellfish coming between fishing and aquacultural production, does not represent any economic threat linked to direct competition between products. In fact, the specific nature of its production means that it should be analysed in comparison with fishing and aquaculture in the light of the added value it creates based on the use of a common biomass.

1. SMALL-SCALE FISHING

Within the Framework of this seminar, semi-industrial fishing involving 150 trawlers and tunny boats operating off the Mediterranean, can be left aside. In contrast, because of its production and the areas in which it operates, smallscale fishing is closely related to various forms of marine culture.

Small-scale fishing is still very important in Languedoc Roussillon. Unique, traditional and highly diversified, this type of activity is carried out in all of the region's ports. In 1982, official figures showed that there were 1,265 ownerskippers and a total of 1,500 crew (CEPRALMAR, 1983). In 1984, a very comprehensive census showed that on the sea alone, there was a fleet that was definitly larger than that revealed in the official figures and that two-thirds of it were located in the neighbourhood of SETE (FARRUGIO, IFREMER, 1984).

Numbers factors hinder the gathering of information of a regular quality and complicate attempts to initiate an overall socio-economic approach for this activity. It involves the diversify of fishing techniques : passive methods (fixed nets, etc…), active methods (drag nets, long-lines, seine-netting, etc …), dispersed landing points and the individualistic character of smallscale fishermen.

Although their equipment varies widely, these small-scale fleets do have a certain number of points in common and their boats are small (between 4 and 15 metres), their motor power is often limited (20 to 100 HP). In the case of very old vessels (over 45 years old), there is a trend towards updating them, particularly in the SETE area (almost 30% of the vessels are under ten years old).

The economic situation of small-scale fisheries has not yet been the subject of an overall analysis. Only studies of specific ports or certain other activities throw some light on fishing statistics. In spite of a large number of variables and diffierent practices, some elements for economic analysis of small-scale fisheries' performances may be advanced.

Small-scale fishing is often centered on product with a high added value and rarely has the marketing problems encountered by semi-industrial fisheries. Meanwhile, distribution networks are difficult to pinpoint, be they direct sales to retailers, restaurants or even to consumers, a practice which is often common during the summer months.

Using limited capital, often already paid off, and rarely having to call upon a salaried labour force, the profits of small-scale fisheries is almost always based on the fishermen's own competence and hard work. Thus, lagoon fishermen can be found to make much greater profits than the industrial owners of recently equiped launches.

Future problems are showing up for certain types of small-scale fishing. Overfishing and a decrease in catches and therefore, in revenues are being noted for certain types of lagoon fishing, as are competition and conflicts with trawler fishing within the three mile limit zone.

Small-scale fisheries long abandoned by the official policies of fishing authorities, today find themselves involved in planned projects in lagoons as well as in coastal areas. Their position and participation in these new activities, extensive aquaculture and artificial reefs, for example, are important elements which must be considered seriously and treated as more than more scientific studies which is actually the case.

2. SHELLFISH CULTURE

Shellfish culture, the raising of comestible shellfish, in Laguedoc-Roussillon consists primarily of oyster and mussel farming.

It is carried out in two sites, the Thau and Salces-Leucate lagoons. THe Thau lagoon production is greater and represents 90% to 95% of the area's total production.

The analysis of the shellfish production system places it between the agriculture system and the predatory fishing system. In relation to agriculture, farming shellfish in an almost closed environment, such as a lagoon, means that in fact, each producer creates a negative effect on his neighbouring producers. The question is one of sharing the limited primary plankton resource which is fairly close to a pastoral activity.

As is the case for fishing, shellfish farming relies on a limited natural potential and involves the risk of over-exploitation if it is not organized and governed by production regulations.

In relation to fishing, shellfish culture, when it is practised in the same areas, creates the problems of compatibility or competition between the two activities as far as space is concerned.

The competition for space in a site like the Thau lagoon is not only shared with fishing activities. This lagoon is also subject to strong pressures from tourist activities, urbanization and surrounding industrialization. These factors make the Thau basin a fragile area liable to suffer from crises of biological origin (harmful algae blooms) or of human of origin (industrial or urban pollution).

2.1 THE SHELLFISH PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Investigation on the means of exploitation of the Thau lagoon is essential so as to analyse the production system. Recent studies (E. LEBRUN, 1985) allow us to answer certain questions.

Shellfish production is based on government concessions granted to private individuals. In reality economic production units are often made up of groups of legally independant leaseholders. Thus E. LEBRUN shows that almost 850 concessionaires, really represent little more than 700 production units. Such reorganizing allows us to estimate the average production level of the Thau lagoon at 4.7 “tables” which is relatively small.

Between themselves, shellfish farmers reveal different situations which have consequences on their economic activity. Even though a great majority farm shellfish exclusively, almost 300 are also lagoon fishermen and some 100 others have a separate activity (farming, trade, etc…).

2.2. PRODUCTION AND RESULTS OF EXPLOITATION

Starting with the “natural” production of oysters and clams at the beginning of the century, during the 1950's shellfish culture in the Thau lagoon, favoured mussels. But, for some years now, mussel culture has declined in favour of the cupped oyster.

Production estimates are subject to controversy depending on whether they are based on administrative controls or biological estimates. In 1984, the total production of mussels was between 5,150 and 7,200 tonnes while the cupped oyster production was between 9,000 and 15,000 tonnes (E. LEBRUN, 1985).

The calculation of production results is greatly affected by the range of production estimates. At the same time, calculations are further complicated by the differences in output according to the location of the parks in the basin. In the areas with the highest production, however, E.LEBRUN's estimates show that in spite of foreign competition, mussel culture is still the most profitable activity, while in other areas it is loosing ground to the much less demanding cupped oyster culture. The marketing networks used by the producers also affect their profits according to whether their sales are direct or wholesale.

3. THE PROSPECTS FOR INTENSIVE AQUACULTURE

With more than 200 kilometres of mostly sandy coastline and over 30,000 hectares of lagoons, the Languedoc-Roussillon region offers numerous potentially favourable sites for the development of various types of aquaculture. The evaluations of current various experiences and types of exploitation (H. REY, 1984–1985) show that bass, sea-bream and open-sea shellfish farming are activities which are beginning to be mastered at technical level.

It may seem premature, however, to speak about aquaculture as a productive sector. Quantities currently marketed by the region are still extremely limited.

On a socio-economic level, as recent studies (H. REY, 1985) show, it is research which is the most developed component in the aquaculture field, in terms of both the organizations involved and the employment and financial benefits.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ON LANGUEDOC-ROUSSILLON

A. BERGER et P. PEYRONNEL
Approche de la rentabilité de l'effort de pêche en Languedoc-Roussillon, C.R.P.E.E., MONTPELLIER, 1983.

J. CATANZANO
Contribution à l'économie de la mer : la pêche en Méditerranée Occidentale, C.R.P.E.E., MONTPELLIER, 1983.

CEPRALMAR
La pêche aux petits métiers en Languedoc-Roussillon, MONTPELLIER, 1983.

H. FARRUGIO et G. LE CORRE
Stratégie d'échantillonnage des pêches aux “petits métiers” en Méditerranée, IFREMER - SETE, 1984.

E. LEBRUN
La conchyliculture dans le bassin de Thau, C.R.P.E.E., MONTPELLIER, 1985.

H. REY, M. ANTONA, et E. LEBRUN
Analyse des filières conchylicoles et aquacoles en Languedoc-Roussillon, C.E.P., MONTPELLIER, 1985.

FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS ON THE ECONOMIC ASPECT OF AQUACULTURE

By Antonio NARVAEZ BUENO - University of MALAGA

During the last few years, a university group from the University of MALAGA have been studying the economic aspects of fishing and aquaculture.

With help from the Andalusian government and the Spanish government some initial studies have been carried out mostly on the theoretical aspects of problems in aquaculture, as well as on pratical aspects of experiments being conducted in the south of Spain.

The University studies haven't yet come up with complete results and the presentation of the latter at this seminar only deals with the study hypothesis and with the ideas which are actually developed.

When examining aquaculture economic aspects, three considerations must be taken into account :

-   An overall approach on the socio-economic situation of the country and on its level of development. The aquaculture projects cannot be of the same nature when carried out in a developing country and in a developed country,

-   Approaching markets which are concerned with new production. One cannot only produce for a hypothetical market, generally an export one, which promises to absorb unlimited quantities of expensive produce. One has to be sure of the markets in focus, whether they are local, national or international. This helps with the development of aquaculture production ;

-   An employment approach. Whether one is in a developing country or in a developed country, the problem of employment in the aquaculture sectors must be examined. Who is affected by the jobs created? Relations with traditional fishermen, professional training, management, etc…

The early experiments in the South of Spain showed that aquaculture was simply a game in the hands of biologists. However, in 1973, with the economic crisis, methods until then undeveloped were considered in order to find a substitute for certain severly affected traditional sectors.

Efforts made in research and the encouragement of private initiatives resulted in many projects, however these projects haven't yet given any tangible results. Everyone concerned, for years now, have been saying that next year the programme will work better. The only positive results from an economic standpoint came from traditional aquaculture exploitations (in particular shellfish farming).

Observations currently made are like a “black cloud” in the clear blue sky of tomorrow's aquaculture. What can we do about it ?

-   either continue to improve techniques and wait for better biological results which would allow us to develop, on an economic level, efficient production results.

-   or consider that “intensive” aquaculture isn't yet up to expectations, except for a few species, and therefore transfer all financial efforts to traditional or extensive aquaculture along with the development of lagoon and coastal fisheries.

Debates on aquaculture are often ambiguous due to the uncertainty of the terms used. Aquaculture is culture in freshwater, brackish water or in salt water, of plants or fish. It is also the culture of shellfish and crustaceans. It is therefore necessary to define the concepts used in order to rationally resolve problems.

The experiments in the South of Spain are numerous and some have already reached production stage.

There are concerns considered as serious which use very sophisticated techniques imported from Japan. They have obtained some results, especially in the area of hatcheries, but are not yet conclusive from a financial point of view. They are all waiting for tomorrow for production levels to improve.

There is a Bank group which bought a saltworks that was in difficulty, made up of around 1,000 hectares of crystallisers. The purchase price was based on to 0.50 FF per m², for land destined to aquaculture, but located in an area where the expansion of the neighbouring city is foreseable (according to the urban development plan).

The investments made are for laboratories and hatcheries. This financial group therefore helps aquaculture development by supplying small-scale producers with fingerlings. The risks are therefore born by the others and the real estate prospects limit the hazardous aspects of the operation.

The Spanish economists' questions are also on the nature of aquaculture concerns. Theoretically, the problem is very close to that of organization and managing agricultural exploitations. Yet, in Andalusia, we started off from a traditional fishing system technically perfected, but not studied in detail to go on to a new system, which technically isn't entirely mastered, but on an economic management level is known, as it can be assimilated to a modern agricultural production system. Problems concerning concessions and, more generally, the appropriation of the marine and lagoon domains must be closely studied both on a legislative level and on a regulatory level.

Within this seminar, three lines of though developed by Spanish researchers should be noted :

-   The place of aquaculture as an element in the system of food production,

-   The role held by aquaculture in the development process, as a new economic activity,

-   The fishing-aquaculture relationship in food production.

For the greater part, aquaculture seems to be a way to increase the volume of protein in the diet, by using unutilized resources. However, it is not proven that all types of aquaculture result in this, nor that production in sufficient, nor that it is accepted. We cannot say that producing bass or sea-bream in developing countries has a final effect on food production, in other words, production is better. Also, in most communities it will often be difficult to introduce a certain type of fish into local eating habits just because it is easy to produce. Anyway, we cannot talk about aquaculture development without being somewhat discriminating due to our own eating habits.

If we analyse the evolution of the efficiency of production techniques in relation to time, we will come up with the diagramme shown here under.

The techniques that we pass on to developing countries are fundamentally very efficient. They have probably reached their highest level of production efficiency. Developing countries have become, thanks to these techniques, capable of using the techniques but haven't acquired any “real know-how”. Therefore, they cannot improve the efficiency of the techniques used. In other words, the more sophisticated the techniques used are the more dependent the developing countries are on developed countries as it is even harder to understand the “real know-how” of these techniques.

Fishing and aquaculture appear to be types of production of a special kind of food. Without describing the compatibility and differences between these two activities, it would be interesting to make one point stand out; aquaculture needs products that come from fishing in order to develop its production. Now, to feed sea-bream and bass, low quality fish are required. In this way, low priced proteins are revalued and become a means of protein with a high economic value. Aquaculture can, therefore, appear to be a revaluation process which increases the value of fish production by changing it into another type of consumption. However, thought must be given to the fact that for aquaculture to develop, prices of fish that come from fishing must be low, in other words, fishing must be ensured in a crisis situation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANTONIO J. NARVAEZ BUENO, La acuicultura como factor de desarrolo en las regiones espanolas. Universidad de MALAGA, Noviembre 1985, 10 p.

G. RUIZ BRAVO, A. NARVAEZ BUENO. Relacion entre economia y ecologia en el analisis de la pesca. J.C. MARTINEZ coll. Universidad de MALAGA, Noviembre 1985, 26p.

STRATEGY FOR AQUACULTURE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION
INTERACTION BETWEEN AQUACULTURE AND OTHER COASTAL ACTIVITIES

Philippe FERLIN presented a paper by Stephano CATAUDELLA on aquaculture strategies and an analysis of interactions between aquaculture and other activities.

1. STRATEGY FOR AQUACULUTRE IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION

Mediterranean aquaculture includes many types of activities having different features and roles to play in the production strategy, and varying impact on the local economy and environment.

Some types of production tend to produce only for the local market. These are more socially oriented in as much as they are integrated into already existing activities. Other types tend to industrialize production with a view towards optimal profits, and therefore adopt a less social approach.

1.1. Basic strategic data

1.1.1. Fry and fingerling production for the Mediterranean

There are two types of Mediterranean aquaculture, one based on collecting fry in their natural habitat, the other on producing fry in hatcheries.

Despite the fact that some scientists and administrators encourage the hatchery production of fry in certain countries because of overfishing of certain coastal areas, most aquaculture depends on the capture of fry in the wild. Thus for instance, in the case of sea-bream; whereas the demand for fry reaches 50 million specimens per year, hatcheries in the Mediterranean supply only one million.

This reliance on nature for the supply of “raw materials” limits aquaculture development and therefore requires on increased effort to improve fry production in a controlled environment.

In all aquaculture development programmes, the origin of the fry must be clearly identified and environmental impact analysed.

1.1.2. Traditional activities in Mediterranean aquaculture

Mediterranean aquaculture is based on very ancient traditions. Some practices, such as Italian valliculture, and the exploitation of lagoons in the Nile delta are more closely related to aquaculture than fishing.

The borderline between the two activities isn't really clear. Many lagoon activities may be defined as aquacultural.

Coastal lagoon management must be integrated into aquaculture activities, due to its socio-economic impact and its role in environment quality control.

The environment of coastal areas can also encompass certain aquaculture activities which are integrated into the system, especially shellfish culture, and which can also furnish employment for some of the labour force already working in lagoon fishing.

1.1.3. The various aquaculture practices

On the Mediterranean, different situations can be found, each with many possibilities for the choice of an appropriate development policy.

Thus for instance, Egypt may direct its aquaculture production towards bottom-feeding species and which satisfy a high domestic demand for food. Other southern countries tend to produce for Northern Mediterranean markets. For this purpose, the most advanced technologies and models are constantly being developed in order to produce as quickly as possible.

In Northern Mediterranean regions production models attempt to use the most advanced techniques in limited space, thus creating tension with already existing activities. However, aquaculture seems to be evolving towards greater use of natural resources.

1.2. MAIN PRODUCTION STRATEGIES

1.2.1. Management of closed systems

It involves practices which enable man to control the dynamics of marketable stocks by means of selective fishing. This is a method of extensive farming, without any particular feeding or restocking activities. Emphasis on managment of the aquatic environment, collection of fry in the wild, protection of the environment. Investment are generally large and due to their social impact are subject to public policy.

1.2.2. Shellfish production

It is a type of aquaculture that, with specific techniques, depends on the use of natural food resources.

Many Mediterranean areas are suitable for this type of production which can be combined with intensive fish culture in floating cages.

Shellfish culture is an old northern Mediterranean tradition.

1.2.3. Semi-intensive pond production

This type of production is widely used in freshwater ponds and brackish water lagoons.

In the Mediterranean region, certain species such as mullet, sea-bream and shrimp are suited to this type of production. These are good bottom-feeding species.

The high coast of earth removal and pumping limit the development of such methods.

1.2.4. Intensive production models

In Northern Mediterranean regions these models are prevalent and are directed towards the production of bass, eel and occasionally other species. Intensive farming installations tend towards the production of a considerable bio-mass with the total introduction of food and rapid changes in water. These installations require strict management which is technologically extremely advanced.

The impact on the environment is terrific, due to necessity for constructions in concrete and the quality of the water used. The food needs and the application of appropriate technology in some regions, can become the principal limiting factors.

2. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN AQUACULTURE AND OTHER COASTAL ACTIVITIES

Due to its history, its geographic location and its climate and hydrological characteristics, the Mediterranean coast is highly attractive for various human pursuits. Aquaculture must either take these activities into consideration or compete with them.

2.1.Aquaculture and fishing

By their very nature, there are very few contrasts between these two activities. One ensures production based on natural resources, the other tries to control the productive cycle. From the point of view of space required, aquaculture takes up very limited space in comparison to Fishing.

In certain places, competition may exist (as in Japan, for example).

2.1.1.Competition for the use of space

In lagoon areas, the conflict is mainly between traditional fishermen and shellfish farmers. These problems can be resolved by sharing the territory (as at Thau, France) or by forbiding fishing (as at Limski Canal, in Yugoslavia).

2.1.2.Competition for biological resources

Some conflicts can arise around the use of natural biological resources common to fishing : such as the natural production of fry, bottom feeders which may lead to over-exploitation of natural resources.

2.1.3.Competition for human resources

A substantial increase in aquaculture may have a good effect for the fishing population especially on the younger generations.

2.1.4.Competition for financial resources

Aquaculture drains a high percentage of money invested in the sea product sector, without any relationship to its current production. In many cases, the investments do not come up with concrete results and, therefore, would have been used more profitability if invested in fishing.

2.1.5.Market competition

For the time being, it is not serious. However, if aquacultural production increases greatly, market problems would then arise. Possible eventual risks are shellfish, trout and salmon.

The relationship between fishing and aquaculture may, at times, be compatible on rare occasions and generally limited to lagoon production.

2.2. Aquaculture and agriculture

Competition may arise between these two forms of cultivation for the use of land, freshwater and food by-products.

In Mediterranean areas, land problems do not exist as tens of millions of hectares are available for aquaculture without interfering with agriculture.

However, problems concerning the use of freshwater are sensitive. Freshwater is used to lower the level of salinity of water used in aquaculture. In Southern Mediterranean regions, this need for freshwater is in direct competition with agriculture needs.

Competition can also play a role in aquaculture's use of agricultural by-products. In the case of intensive aquaculture, feeding requirements are based on fish meal, soya, etc… also used by the agricultural sector.

Conflicts arise also due to the side effects that these two activities have on their surrounding environment; water pollution due to agricultural pesticides and fertilizers, and the increase in salinity of agricultural land surrounding certain aquaculture projects.

2.3. Aquaculture and tourism

The spectacular development of tourism in Mediterranean regions has consequences on aquaculture.

Here, conflicts mostly concern coastal land use. Excessive expansion of either of these activities will bring about problems such as:

-   Water pollution due to waste product dumping by tourist installations.

-   Disturbances created by tourists on aquaculture production sites (for example, Thau, in France).

-   Esthetic impact of aquaculture installations located near tourist sites.

Despite these problems, tourism and aquaculture can coexist and even an integration on a certain level is possible. Infrastructural work and equiping of the areas concerned, complementary employment for seasonal workers and the creation of markets in proximity to aquaculture production.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT IN THE MEDITERRANEAN

By Uli SCHMIDT

Certain points should made clear with regard to the complexities, not to say the paradoxical aspects of aquaculture socio-economics. First of all, economic analysis alone cannot adequately explain how the producer, who is rarely an economist, arrives at his decision to start producion. His motivation is based on a combination of tradition and socio-cultural factors. Moreover, although aquaculture is often referred to as an industry, it belongs, in fact, to the primary sector.

Aquaculture also has an important historical dimension. In a Mediterranean context, fresh-water aquaculture has medieval origins, having been started by monks. Mariculture, on the other hand, is closely connected to lagoon fisheries: for instance, it is not clear whether one should call the practice of fish-trapping in Greece aquaculture or fisheries. The management or regulation of effort in coastal fisheries comes close to extensive aquaculture.

Intensive, semi-intensive and extensive aquaculture have different implications for a socio-economist. The property structure implied by each is an important aspect. In extensive aquaculture or lagoon fisheries, you often have a collective property structure or use of the resources, if there is no property as such. In intensive or semi-intensive aquaculture, there is a multi-species stock, there is usually free access to it; whereas, with a mono-species resources, such as clam-fishing in Italy, property rights are very often applied. It would be useful for fisheries administrators and reseachers to monitor and predict the gradual trend towards adoption of such rights.

The conventional approach for socio-economic analysis of aquaculture is to look first at the resource, secondly at the production sphere, and thirdly at the market.

1. RESOURCE (land, water) :

In mariculture, this resource is normally already used, and the decision to use it for aquaculture is taken either by the private or public sectors, or by both. The socio-economist has to ask himself why this decision is taken: by the investor to make a profit, by the Government to increase income or employment opportunities, by the environmental lobby to preserve a certain habitat. The socio-economist is also apt to look for the socio-economic benefits which can accrue to the people from aquaculture, and therefore recommend small-scale or medium-scale development of a public resource over large-scale industrial types. He also has a role to play for predicting and resolving conflicts that may appear over use of the resource.

There exist physical resources which are considered sometimes in terms of production factors. For example, in fresh-water aquaculture in semi-arid regions, water is a scarce production factor: in Egypt; since the Government's priority is agriculture, the use of irrigation water for aquaculture is virtually forbidden.

Fish-feed is another case in point, where the national resource base may be tapped. In Northern Italy, a large-scale mariculture programme intended to use almost the entire blue-fish production of the Adriatic to feed his fish. In some tropical countries, the import of subsidized fish-feed may make sense to the entrepreneur, but it may also mean a macro-economic loss to the country. In the planning of aquaculture development, the fact that agricultural by-products are already used by other sectors of the economy is not always fully considered.

Where fingerling production is concerned, the catching of fry in the wild may initially provide jobs for small-scale fishermen, but eventually be in competition with the small-scale fisheries sector for the same natural resource. As for hatchery production, experience shows that dependency on foreign technology may be created.

Another item is the competition for public funds, as in Italy and France. Fisheries people consider that subsidies and research budgets for aquaculture should be, in effect, deducted from funds available for fisheries. Indeed, hardly any aquaculture in the Mediterranean is not assisted in some way by public funding.

Lastly, the human resource should be considered. It may be considered as cheap labour (as in the textile industry in some NIC countries); as a scarce resource in industrialized countries: from the point of view of educational levels required, or as the chief resource involved in the development process. Where fisheries and aquaculture are concerned, in 9 publications out of 10, production is the focal point, rather than the producer. It is high time people should be seen as the subjects and justification for development, however polemical a topic this may be.

2. MEANS OF PRODUCTION: Tools, machinery, technology

The question of appropriate or inappropriate technology arises, so the socio-economist has to predict whether a given technology is suitable at a particular time and in a particular place. The socio-economist can also join forces with a suitable partner from the technological sector to create appropriate technology. The appropriateness of technology can be measured by the extent to which it is dependent on continuous foreign inputs. In an African context (for example, the building of a hatchery in Congo-Brazzaville) logistical difficulties for the supply of inputs lead to frequent breakdowns, and their withdrawal may mean the total collapse of the enterprise. The same would apply if there are no inbuilt mechanisms to transfer technical expertise to local people.

Appropriate technology need adequate transfer methods. It is sometimes fallaciously thought that technology that has proved its worth in one context will also do so in another. Or the donor of technology may not be patient enough to allow local people to learn by their own mistakes and experience. Technology transfer is also but a means, and not a end for development.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF FISHING AND AQUACULTURE IN COASTAL AND LAGOON AREAS OF THE NORTHERN SPANISH MEDITERRANEAN

By Jose Manuel MASSIP - SEGARA

1. DEFINITION OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL AREA

The coastal provinces of Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia and the Balearic islands constitute an area large enough for the production of live resources, and can be refered to as a Northern Spanish Mediterranean entity.

2. SOCIAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AREA

2.1. The dynamic nature of maritime production

The harsh geographic conditions have led to the development of imaginative coastal fishing activities backed up by constant innovations for the exploitation of new resources. Since 1960, this predatory behaviour, backed by modern forms of exploitation, such as the trawler, has forced this maritime population into a suicidal economic situation. However, thanks to its inherent dynamic nature, it can probably look forward to a number of opportunities for the future.

2.2. The socio-economic standstill in estuaries and lagoons

Despite being the subjects of multiple attacks, lagoons, deltas and estuaries are favourable speculation sites. Man can adapt to the area, especially because of the variety and abundance of the resources available which allow for passive exploitation. This type of exploitation remains technically archaic and has strong social traditions. As it stems from an enormous Latin civilisation, it is based on a communal system. The lack of change is in sharp contrast to the dynamism of these zones.

2.3. Prospects for an integrated plan of lagoons and the coastline

The contrast and compatibility of the physical and socio-economic aspects require the establishment of an integrated plan in which organisation and facilities will take an overall vision; artificial reefs, restocking, quotas, control of fishing activities, etc… We will take up this point below.

3. SITUATION AND RESULTS OF THE EXPLOITATION OF LIVING RESOURCES IN THE NORTHERN SPANISH MEDITERRANEAN

3.1. Fishing (See appendix, tables)

The zone reveals a production structure which is distinctly less industrialized than the rest of Spain.

Two fifths of the trawlers are in the Northern part of the Spanish Mediterranean. However, their, their total motor power is less than one-quarter of the total in this category and only slightly higher than one-fifth of the grosstonnage. Industrial forms of mass exploitation do not exist in the zone. Both in volume and in value, for one-quarter of the boats and one-fifth of the crews, production represents 10% of the national total.

This data shows that the nature of production is selective rather than industrial.

3.2. Aquaculture and lagoon production

The statistical data available is sparse, incomplete and of doubtful quality. For fishing, some studies (DOUMENGE) show a production per hectare ratio of 84 to 250 kgs, depending on the site. Other studies, either public or private, make reference to global production rates of over 200,000 tonnes.

Two statistical examples give us a fish production of over 60 tonnes for the Erbe lagoons (1,100 hectares) and 260 tonnes for the Valencia estuary (3,000 hectares, see appendix).

Mussel culture is carried out in various forms throughout the zone, however they do not feature in statistical evaluations.

4. PROSPECTS FOR FISHING AND MARICULTURE IN THE NORTHERN SPANISH MEDITERRANEAN

4.1. Prospects for an expanding market

Spain has a commercial deficit of over US $ 100 million worth of products from the sea. Spanish national and E.E.C. demand is increasing at such a rate that traditional production structures will definitely not be able to supply enough.

4.2. The future of maritime fishing

Due to geographic conditions, most likely the exploitation of Northern Spanish Mediterranean will be based on the same fishing resources as they are at present. Production techniques will also remain the same unless there is an unlikely technical revolution. They will rely on classic techniques: the lamparo, long-lining trawlers, dragnets and brawl lines. The lamparos specialize in catching pelegian species such as: sardines, anchovies, mackerel and herring;

The trawlers are specialized in catching benthic species such as dogfish, caplin, codfish, rockling, pageot, sea-bream, red shrimp, whiting, lemon sole, sole, Norway lobster.

Coastal fishing's future relies on the European Common Market which will direct the maritime environment by professional organisation; controling production tools (size and capacity of vessels, conforming to specific standards); inter-community money exchanges, ecological observation of the sector.

In any event, Northern Spanish Mediterranean fishing will retain its selective approach by opposing a massive production of proteins.

4.3. The future of mariculture

This practice is already rather important in lagoon zones, estuaries and canals. Here too, the E.E.C. context will radically affect the area.

The future market situation requires that a planning for the lagoons be improved, such as building and modernising breeding grounds, initiating pilot projects and new techniques of intensive breeding, environmental quality control, building artificial reefs, etc…

The future of mariculture will First manifest itself by an increase in technological methods: eel breeding in farms or in swamps, bass, sea-bream and sole in parks or on rafts; trout raised in sea-water.

Many problems will have to be overcome: reorganizing mussel culture, the shortage of salmonidae and tench fry, and of oyster and clam seed.

From a structural standpoint, a flexible production and commercialisation system must be drawn up, but follow through in investment is lacking, research centres are scattered, the technicians who are trained in to short of a period of time are unqualified also technology, documentation and information are lacking. The Government's objective is a production of 600,000 tonnes. It stresses and encourages investing, the promulgation of an outline plan, and public investments in research projects, pilot experimental schemes, artificial reefs and nets.

5. INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF FISHERMEN

5.1. The marine social security institute (See appendix)

This national public establishment has the moral strength to fulfill many social public service missions which would benefit people who are dependent on the sea :

-   health assurance invalidity/accident assurance for fishermen and their dependants, by managing a social security fund and establishing these structures.

-   wide socio-educational programmes aimed at people who are dependent on the sea and their families: health information, education and professional training, unemployment benefits, foreign fishermen,

-   assurance for boats, public information, cooperative production.

THe I.S.M. assures the social security coverage for over one million people. Its turnover for 1984 was close to US $ 320 million.

5.2. Fishermen's “brotherhoods” and shared reimbursement

5.2.1. “Brotherhoods”

These corporations date back to the 13th century. Since 1978, they have a legal status as a consulting organisation and participate in the Government. Therefore, they have a the power to negotiate and ensure authority. These corporations have evolved. They have become real professional chambers with extensive management powers, mainly based on the need of small-scale and small groups of fishermen. Shared reimbursement seems to be the main vitality of these corporations.

5.2.2. Shared reimbursement

For small-scale fishing units which make up the major part of the region's fleet, the seamen are reimbursed, not on a fixed salary basis but on a share of the benefits basis. The benefits are divided into shares whose base unit is how hard each fisherman works, some shares are used to reimburse the fishermen and for amortizing capital investments (nets, emberkations).

A remarkable peculiarity of this system is that the benefit is calculated with certain deductions made for certain costs of production: social services, boat maintenance, fuel, due to the brotherhood. The brotherhood resolve work conflicts that may arise at any time, especially those involving this “sharing” process.

For the time being, the brotherhoods have the flexibility to insure the smooth running of collective management and representation, transitions with modern democratic organisations: trade-unions, paternal associations, and groups of producers which are required by the E.E.C.

5.3. Specialized banking organisations: F.R.O.M. and C.S.P.

5.3.1. The Fund for Regulation and Organisation of the Market for sea and marine culture products

This organisation's aim is to improve the collective infrastructure of the small-scale fishing sector. Its interventions were notably the financing of port information facilities, refrigeration material, market studies, and agroalimentary technology, for aquaculture (between 1982 and 1983), the F.R.O.M. quadrupled its investments in this domaine. It also financed the purchase of seeds (oyster, clam, cokles), trout fingerlings and restocking and improving sites.

5.3.2. The Fishermen's Credit Union (C.P.S.)

This organisation depends on the industrial Credit Bank. It finances the construction of vessels, land equipment and marine culture. It also makes loans for licensing and trips. The interest rates are between 11% and 17% for all of these activities and coverage ranges from 85% to 70% depending on the project. The Northern Spanish Mediterranean companies borrowed about 7% of the funds available in the area. The brotherhoods in the zone cover about 40% of the risks (See appendix).

5.4. Participation and representation of fishermen

Fishermen are represented in the participation and management organisations mentioned above (I.S.M., C.S.P., B.C.I., F.R.O.M., brotherhoods). They are represented on, among others, the permanent Mediterranean Fishing Authority and also specific fish/agriculture organisations within different autonumous communities. This representation is essential for the sector itself, and for effective administration.

5.5. Social situation of the fishermen

The social situation of the Spanish Mediterranean fishermen reflects the economic difficulties of the area and the marginal social status of this profession. Beyond the low turnover linked to overexploitation, the deterioration of marine environment and periodic difficulties of the market, one can remark out dated production equipment, the independent and archaic solidarity of their professional relations.

Low level of education of this population is noticeable as is its autonomy in the face of public interference. Spanish politicians are now preoccupied with resolving the marginal status of fishermen.

6. ONE HOPE FOR MARINE ACTIVITIES IN THE ZONE: THE UNDERSECRETARY OF THE F.A.O.'S POSITION (Declaration made by Mr. de la TOJA et the “Fishing Fair”).

The importance of developing fishing on a small-scale has being recognized. Along side, the prospects for the social progress of men and community groups is being studied. The necessity for professional training and the improvement of well-being of fishermen is also affirmed.

A MODEL OF REGIONAL POLICY : DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE
SOCIAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ASPECTS

By Juan Manual GARCIA BARTOLOME

1. THE DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE IS A PRIORITY FOR AGRICULTURE AND FISHING AUTHORITIES

This project of the central services merits an operational formula in socio-economic terms. The Andalusian project which is supported by the Fisheries Authority seems to be an excellent example of programme developed on a regional level.

Natural resources in the Andalusian region are especially favourable for aquaculture speculation : 2.500 hectares of intertidal zone, 10,000 hectares of salt marshes, 20,000 hectares of ponds and lakes, 3.000 hectares of shallow coastal waters on 850 kilometres of coast.

This creates a potential aquaculture production level of 140,000 tonnes simply by using current techniques. Future progress in this area and exploitation of open sea will multiply these possibilities. The authority's goal of the next decade is to reach a level of 40,000 tonnes of shellfish, 10,000 tonnes of fish, 100 tonnes of crustaceans. The social gains of this goal are fundamental for the Andalusian population in terms of employment and quality of life.

2. THE STRUCTURE OF ADMINISTRATIVE INTERVENTION

During changes in Central Government, the Fisheries Authority didn't have much in the way of administrative means. Its infrastructure was reinforced according to a unique plan developed by a multidisciplinary team which included: biologists, economists, sociologists, legal experts, fishing and marine technicians. These interventions are more flexible and less formalized and marked by pragmatism. The team's plan enhanced the collaboration of those concerned with fishing.

The Maricultural Exploitation Plan for the South Atlantic Regions (P.E.M.A.R.E.S.) was undertaken by the Authorities. The director of Fisheries has taken over. His collaborators, who are responsible for aquaculture services or of inland waters, are part of the scientific commission. The Head Office (in SEVILLE) is made up of a scientific section and of two prefectural zones:CADIZ and HUELVA.

P.E.M.A.R.E.S.'s objective is to assure the promotion of aquaculture production :

-   rationalizing of the exploiting of natural shellfish beds,

-   promotion of fish and shellfish,

-   programming activities on a local level,

-   socio-economic follow-up of the producer population,

-   market harmony,

-   increase in production.

3. COLLABORATING WITH THE SOCIO-PROFESSIONAL MILIEU

This idea, inspires the use of public powers and many conciliatory bodies are used by the Government: an expert advisory group has been set up to help the general manager, which includes four representatives from aquaculture cooperatives :- The fishermen's brotherhood - corporations placed by the marine administration and whose contribution is essential : This enables the ensurance of a running account of fish resources

-   The rio Piedras management commission (is a kind of brotherhood, in LEPE).

4. SOCIAL ASSISTANCE

4.1 An approach of socio-economic facts

The general management directed studies in four fields : socio-economic and cultural analysis of the professional milieu, inventory of natural environment (resources, pollution, cartography of maricultural areas), present situation of the structure of production, analysis of cooperations.

The P.E.M.A.R.E.S has therefore carried out aquaculture zoning based on technical, geographical, economical and social considerations.

4.2. Interventions on social groups : professionalization

The first part of this notion consists in improving the way shellfish are collected, whether the fishermen are on boats or are wading: methods used to fish, quantity and type of species Fished.

The second element relies on the distribution of a professional register by the Autonomous Community of Andalusia. This register allowed us to separate the professionals and identify those whose commercial activity is at a high level. This is therefore the first evaluation of the profession, however, it is still very incomplete.

The other part of social policy relies on the encouraging of cooperation which has appreciable social effects in terms of employment. The promoting of this area is done by attributing domanial concessions, continual support from the authorities, subventions training. Forty cooperatives, including 300 cooperators, were set up in the provinces of CADIZ and HUELVA.

At this point, twenty private companies are installed on domanial concessions for marine culture purposes.

The “Guadalquivir swamps” (near SEVILLE) production site has developed a highly cooperative system for exploiting red crab. (263 cooperators working in 8 cooperatives)

5. DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED AND RESULTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

5.1. On an institutional level

The sector analysed, showed the problems that accured when setting up a new administrative structure. There was opposition between the inherent constraint of traditional formalism of administrative structures and the pragmatic or innovative dynamism of new organisations.

The lack of an administrative representative on the field convinced central authorties to privilege management tasks to the detriment of its role of a coordinator.

On the other hand, the Director of Fisheries has progressed in coordinating between various administrations concerned. For example, Rio Carreras is, for this, very significant.

5.2. Intervention measures

The authorities had a hard time to define the limits of the social groups concerned, wavering between the "aquaculturist" and "aquaculture farmer" The fisheries Authority made on effort to inform, to train and to educate. However, the individuality of each professional, and the weakness of collective structure of an "untouchable" profession are fundamental handicaps for establishing united programmes. In other words, the answer to most of the problems encountered when setting up the projects were found, by the various authorities and organisations, to be not dependent on the Fisheries Authority. Only the technical problems (biology, judiciary, and economic) haven't yet been resolved.

No matter what, the results obtained by the Fisheries Authority are incontestable, despite very limited experiences. This First stage makes up the “starting block” and is a model of regional development policy. The experience may found a fruitful scientific exchange between MEDRAP and Mediterranean partners.

APPENDIX

1. COASTAL FISHING

Characterstics of the fishing Fleet

Classification by the Category of the Boat according the Gross Tonnage

The whole of Spain

The whole of the Northern Spanish Mediterranean

FLEET CHARACTERISTICS

By type of Fishing

The whole of Spain

Northern Spanish Mediterranean

FISH PRODUCTION IN TERMS OF VOLUME AND OF VALUE

II   -   LAGOON PRODUCTION

III   -   I.S.M.

EVOLUTION OF THE LEVEL OF FINANCING BY THE I.S.M

National Insurance Benefits

CLAIMANTS OF THE I.S.M.
(Fishermen, fish dealers, dock workers, foreign marine fishermen, retried and beneficiaries)

IV   -   Fishermen's Credit Union

Lines of Credit and Loan Conditions

REGIONAL POLICY FOR FISHING AND AQUACULTURE IN VENICE (Italy)

Presentation of an intervention by Giuseppe ALESSANDRA

Head of the Regional Centre for Defense and Experimentation of Fish and Aquaculture

1. THE TRUE VENICE SITUATION

A few figures allow us to measure the importance of fishing and aquaculture activities in the VENICE region

Fishing

1,817 motor boats are counted, with a total tonnage of 11,505 tonnes. There are 4,733 professional sea licences and 3,154 for inland waters. The total production level for VENIC represents 12.5 % of the national production. There are 6 wholesale markets in the north, the total sector employs 7,887 people.

Aquaculture

-   In freswater, there are 142 intensive farms, of which :
96 are trout farms, equal to 32 % of national production,
10 eel farms, representing 13 % of national production,
36 various other farms equal to 22 % of national production.
In all, these farms employ 304 people.

-   In brackish water, there are 9 intensive farms in the VENICE area, of which 4 are eel farms. 30 people are employed.

Valliculture

37 concerns, installated on 17,015 hectares, given a production representing 40 % of national production and employ 252 people.

Mussel culture

Here there are 110 installations on 78 hectares. Production equals 43 % of national production. 800 people are employed in family operations. Mussel culture is carried out in Venitian lagoons (50,000 ha).

In all, for the region around VENICE, Fishing and aquaculture employ 17,500 people including these working in related activities. Gross production in this sector reaches 190 million Lira, or 8 % of the Gross National Production, of animal origins, which is commercialized (1983). There are 456 cooperatives operating in this sector, but for most, they are exclusively fishing cooperatives.

2. REGIONAL INTERVENTIONS

Due to the fact that fishing and aquaculture hold an important role in both employment and in production, the VENICE region tries to encourage this field of activities, which may be further developed.

We shall now discuss the most significant areas of intervention in countries present, specifying the types of interventions and kinds of financing (loans without security or low interest rate loans).

In the fishing sector

-   Aiming at increasing efforts made for fishing :

• aid for the construction of many boats and the replacement of certain boats,

• In order to modernize the existing fleet, the introduction of new standards of security and the replacement of old navigation equipment should be carried out.

-   Improvement and development of the infrastructures :

• Development of ports and harbour installations,

• Setting up canning factories and transformation shipyards,

• Improvement and increase of the means of transportation.

Financial aid to fishing is given in two ways: contributions to capital, representing 30 % and 50 % of planned expenses, and loans with a maximum period of 20 years and covering between 70 % and 80 % of investments. Cooperatives groups of producers and individuals can benefit from these aids and credits.

In the domain of aquaculture

The region intervenes in salt water aquaculture, to increase production and to encourage new installations and pilot projects installations, It gives aid to research projects on new strains that will ensure the repopulation of species and the development of artificial reproduction.

Investments vary between 25% and 50% of the total and other contributions are added on. These forms of aid help to reimburse interest rates. As for fishing, the cooperatives, the consortiums, the groups of producers and individuals may benefit from these aids.

For aquaculture in freshwater

Regional measures bear on :

-   The consolidation and improvement of trout farming, and reorganization and improvement of the concerns,

-   The development of eel farming, encouraging the creation of new concerns, using residual energy resources,

-   The development of small scale aquaculture.

Aid available is of the same kind as that for aquaculture in sea-water and is distributed to the same organization or people.

The region also finances research programmes as well as experiments, technical assistance and the disclosure of information to offices and organizations. The operations are coordinated by the Regional Centre for the Protection of fishing and aquaculture of the E.S.A.V.

3. THE AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT OFFICE OF VENICE (E.S.A.V.) FOR FISHING AND AQUACULTURE

The Regional Centre of Protection and Experimentation was created in 1980 by the regional authorities. Its three main preoccupations are :

-   brackish water and mariculture,

-   mussel, shellfish and algae culture,

-   freshwater.

Its role is particularly directed towards research, experimentation and specialized technical assistance.

For freshwater areas, the measures aim at perfecting the selection of the “parents” and improving the artificial reproduction techniques for various species of trout, small salmon and freshwater crayfish, in order to restock the freshwater waterways.

For the production part of aquaculture activities, the region and the E.S.A.V. assure a particularly important techno-scientific support, for everything concerning environment, feeding and pathology.

The Centre's importance exceeds the bounds of the VENICE region. Measures are planned on a national scale, and also for the E.E.C. and even the F.A.O.

The Centre is conducting research studies and testing on species of fish that live in brackish water, with the help of other organizations for brackish water areas. This is how the Regional Centre of Fishing and Aquaculture of the E.S.A.V. participates in work done by the industrial Company for the Artificial Reproduction of Fish (S.I.R.A.P.) by the C.I.V.V. specialized in valliculture and in the Consortium for the Development of Venitian Fishing and Aquaculture (C.O.S.O.A.V.) which specialize in studying and developing molluscs, crustacea and algae.

4. THE REGIONAL PLAN FOR THE FISHING AND AQUACULTURE SECTOR

In order to develop fishing and aquaculture in a harmonious and rational way, the Venitian region joined the E.S.A.V. and together they elaborated a development plan for the productive sector.

The main ideas covered by this plan, based on a detailed analysis of the sector, can be summarised in the following manner :

Goals and measures planned for the different types of production :

-   Development and modernization of the fishing fleet and installations on land,

-   Development of valliculture concerns, especially integrated systems,

-   Introduction of new hatching practices,

-   Development of mariculture,

-   Reinforcement and reorganization of trout Farms,

-   Increase in production of farmed eel,

-   Genetic improvements and restocking of inland waters.

Goals and measures planned for commercialization:

-   Reogranization of fish markets and their management,

-   Transformation and commercialization of products from fishing and aquaculture.

-   Product image.

Goals and measures planned for development :

-   Research and experimentation projects,

-   Use of results obtained from these projects to improve the profession,

-   Training and re-employment of some workmen.

Lastly, the plan indicates financial needs in the short-term, medium term and long-term, in order to execute all planned measures and reach the goal previously laid out.

On an international level, E.S.A.V. coordinates the “International Conferences on aquaculture” which are held every two years.

In conclusion, all action in the VENICE region and the Office of Agricultural Development aims to rationalize, increase potentials and develop the fishing-aquaculture sector, by giving techno-scientific support to producers. The investments made will then benefit From Financial aids from the region, and State and the E.E.C.