7.1.1 Fire Lookout Systems
Lookouts are a well-proven method of fire detection and can be an important part of an overall fire protection system. They can be permanent or temporary, staffed or automated. Lookouts are typically located on high points such as hilltops, where visibility is good. Visibility is often improved by building lookout towers where natural elevated points do not provide adequate height.
Planning a Lookout Network
The purpose of a lookout is to provide early discovery of fires. Early discovery reduces the time it takes for fire attack, resulting in smaller fires and lower costs. Planning a lookout network or evaluating an existing network is important to ensure that it is effective and in harmony with overall fire protection goals and budgets.
Lookouts can range from sending a person with a radio to a hilltop during times of high fire danger, to a constructed tower that is staffed full-time, or to an infrared automated tower with communication links to headquarters. In any case, there are key items to consider when planning a lookout network.
Coverage Area: Determine the overall region that needs to be covered by lookouts. This is usually based on a fire management plan that identifies protection priorities and areas of high risk and value.
Visible Area: Natural features such as mountains, ridgelines, and vegetation can block what is seen from the lookout. Placement should maximize the total area seen among all the lookouts in the network and reduce the blind areas. This can be done by recording and overlaying seen areas from each lookout on a map. Most Geographical Information Systems (GIS) can perform this task.
Visibility Quality: Consider any impediments to visibility, such as haze from urban areas, mist, and smoke. In many areas of Africa, haze from fires during the dry season can severely reduce visibility during times when early detection is important. Normal range of visibility is from 30-40 km. Reduced visibility may require additional lookouts.
Communications: The ability to communicate smoke reports quickly is absolutely vital. A good lookout system depends on it. Radio and telephones provide the most effective means. If these are not available, use a messenger to convey the smoke report to headquarters.
Facilities and Technology: Determine the type of lookout to be used. Evaluate staffing, construction, maintenance, and technology costs. Minimum tool requirements for staffed lookouts include binoculars, maps, and communications.
Staffed Lookouts
Duties of a Lookout: Lookouts are the ground eyes of the fire protection organization. Reporting fires in a rapid and accurate manner is essential to quick suppression. In order to qualify as lookout, one must have good eyesight, be trustworthy, be able to read maps, and use the tools of the job (compass, radio, etc.).
Detecting smoke: Looking for smoke and a potential fire is the primary job of the lookout. A systematic approach should be used to scan the area for smoke.
Identifying Smoke: Once a smoke has been detected, the lookout must rapidly determine if it represents a fire, and take action to report it to headquarters.
Determining the fire’s location: In order to dispatch personnel, the fire’s location must be accurately determined. This can be done in a number of ways depending on the equipment available. First choice is to use a fire-finder, if available. A fire-finder is a sighting device mounted in the lookout building that combines a map and features of a compass. The fire-finder provides a very accurate way to determine the fire’s bearing, in degrees and distance from the lookout. A map and compass are a good alternative to a fire-finder.
Reporting of fire: The location of a fire should promptly be reported to headquarters ones its location has been determined.
Automated Lookouts
Automated lookouts have been in use in various countries around the world for decades. Technology has evolved to include various types of detection mechanisms, including high-resolution digital TV cameras and infrared sensors. These cameras can be controlled from a central location or they can be set to scan the visible area under computer control. Some systems use sophisticated image processing that can discern smoke without human involvement, trigger an alarm, and provide very accurate location information. In addition, this type of system has the ability to be integrated with other command and control information and GIS systems, increasing its effectiveness.
7.1.2 Air and Ground Patrolling
To deal effectively with a fire, a fire manager must firstly know the presence of fire. There are many methods of detecting fires rapidly, from light aircraft patrolling during high fire danger, to mountain top infrared scanners, cameras, lookout towers to people patrolling the forest. All detection methods are designed to determine a fire exists; as quickly as possible.
The primary advantage of the ground patrol method is its flexibility. Where terrain prevents lookout points, foot and bicycle patrols connected to fire fighting teams can be organized during the fire season. Patrol routes must be planned to cover hazard and danger areas, taking into consideration high-risk areas such as flammable vegetation, wild bees and beekeeping areas, and human activities. Patrols must be in constant communication with ground crews so as to dispatch support as quick as possible.
In order to be successful a fire protection organizations must maintain a state of readiness in the place where their forces are deployed as well as to be able respond to reported fires rapidly and once at the fire, organize and direct its forces in an effective manner.
7.2.1 Provisioning, and Preparing Fire-fighting Resources
Preparedness is the act of organizing resources, in order to respond to a fire. Fire organizations require an adequate supply of fire fighting resources that are available and ready to respond. It is very important to ensure that the supply of resources meets the fire fighting workload of the area of responsibility. Judging the appropriate level of resource availability requires that you review the history of previous fires, and analyse the types of resources used, and their effectiveness. A typical tiered approach is composed of the following:
Initial attack and other dedicated fire resources
These forces are the most capable and highly trained available. Their state of readiness is usually the highest and they are expected to respond quickly (usually in minutes) when dispatched. They are normally paid out of fire protection budgets.
Reserve Resources
These forces are drawn from within the organization or from other organizations as required, but are not normally assigned to fire duty. Personnel are usually identified before the fire season to fill specific roles based on their training and experience. Equipment used for non-fire tasks that could fill a fire role should be identified and provisions made for its call-up, if needed. Reserve forces may be put on a higher state of readiness due to high fire danger or ongoing fires.
Emergency Forces
Often countries have provisions to acquire people or equipment on the spot, or to use volunteers. These forces may not have training and are often not equipped for fire fighting, resulting in an unsafe situation if they are employed in actual fire line work. It is advisable to use these personnel in support jobs or for mop up, where they are not exposed to hazardous situations.
Potential sources of emergency resources are:
• Local and national governmental departments and branches.
• Military and civil defence.
• Private ranches and farms.
• Villages and towns.
Local Leader or Traditional Leader Program
Particularly in temperate Africa, another type of fire fighting force is highly desirable due to scarce resources and long travel times. Local or traditional leaders select people from villages, local communities or towns to organize and direct fire fighting operations in their area of jurisdiction. Each local leader should be able to organize and bring his people together to work on fires in their areas. There is however a need to educate and train these leaders in fire suppression techniques and safety measures.
7.2.2 Pre-Attack Planning
Determining what fires to suppress is very important. Not all fires are equal in terms of potential damage. In fact, many fires are beneficial to the ecosystem. Because fire-fighting resources are scarce, the decision to commit resources to a fire is a critical one. Placing limited resources on a low-threat fire might leave more valuable areas without adequate protection.
7.2.3 Dispatching
Dispatching is at the centre of fire fighting operations. Dispatch centres (also known as control, alarm, or communication centres) can be compared to the body’s central nervous system. They receive a report of a fire and provide a response in the form of mobilized resources and other actions. Dispatch centres may be small, such as a field office staffed by a single person, or they may large and complex, providing services for many different public safety functions, including fire, police, and ambulance. They all perform the following functions:
• Keep track of the location and availability of resources
• Receive reports of fire
• Determine the appropriate response
• Dispatch resources to the fire
• Receive orders and fill orders for fire fighting resources
7.2.4 Co-operative Fire fighting Schemes
Many fire organizations have discovered the advantages of co-operating with each other and with organizations that have a compatible mission. The fact is that few organizations have the personnel or equipment, to handle every fire situation. The following schemes have been found to be effective in increasing co-operation:
Fire Co-operatives
Fire co-operatives (also known as Fire Co-ordination Groups or Fire Protection Associations) are an excellent way to facilitate co-operation. The co-operative is composed of representatives of organizations involved in fire fighting operations, landowners, and emergency services within a geographical area. This area could be local, regional, national, or even international. Co-operatives work to solve common problems and increase co-operation. In some countries, co-operatives are encouraged through enabling laws and policies. Fire co-operatives often form sub-groups to work on specific issues like fire prevention and training.
Co-operative Agreements
Co-operative agreements offer a mechanism for formalizing co-operation between organizations. These agreements may address specific elements of co-operation, such as sharing of personnel and equipment and how reimbursement will be handled, or they may form a broad framework under which other agreements may be developed.
Closest Forces Concept and Resource Sharing
The “closest forces concept” is used to dispatch fire-fighting resources nearest the fire, regardless of their organization and the jurisdiction where the fire is located
Often organizations have areas that can be better protected by another organization. This may be due to distance, access or other reasons. In this case, the protection of these areas can be swapped so that the total fire suppression workload can be optimised. This does not mean changing the administration of these lands, only the fire protection. This type of scheme requires a formal agreement between the participating organizations.
The Incident Command System (ICS) is recognized as an effective system for managing fires and other emergencies. Since its inception, ICS has been recognized as the international model for managing emergency situations. It has been used in countries throughout the world.
ICS is based on the premise that no single agency or department can handle every fire situation alone. Everyone must work together to manage the emergency. To co-ordinate the effective use of all of the available resources, agencies need a formalized management structure that lends consistency, fosters efficiency, and provide direction during a response. The ICS organization is built around five major components (see Annex II):
• Command
• Planning
• Operations
• Logistics
• Finance/Administration
7.3.1 The Command Function
The command function is directed by the Incident Commander, who is the person in charge at the incident and who must be fully qualified to manage the response. Major responsibilities for the Incident Commander include:
• Establishing command and setting up the Command Post.
• Protecting life and property.
• Controlling personnel and equipment resources.
• Maintaining accountability for responder and public safety, as well as for task accomplishment.
• Establishing and maintaining an effective liaison with outside agencies and organizations.
• Ensuring personnel safety.
• Assessing incident priorities.
• Determining operational objectives.
• Developing and implementing the Incident Action Plan (IAP).
• Developing an appropriate organizational structure.
• Maintaining a manageable span of control.
• Co-ordinating overall emergency activities.
• Authorizing the release of information to the media.
• Keeping track of costs.
7.3.2 The Planning Section
On smaller incidents, the Incident Commander is responsible for planning, but when the incident is of larger scale, the Incident Commander establishes the Planning Section. The Planning Section’s function includes the collection, evaluation, dissemination, and use of information about the development of the incident and status of resources. This section’s responsibilities can also include creation of the Incident Action Plan (IAP), which defines the response activities and resource utilization for a specified time period.
7.3.3 The Operations Section
The Operations Section is responsible for carrying out the activities described in the IAP. The Operations Section Chief co-ordinates Operations Section activities and has primary responsibility for receiving and implementing the IAP. The Operations Section Chief reports to the Incident Commander and determines the required resources and organizational structure within the Operations Section. The Operations Section Chief’s main responsibilities are to:
• Direct and co-ordinate all operations, ensuring the safety of Operations Section personnel.
• Assist the Incident Commander in developing response goals and objectives for the incident.
• Request (or release) resources through the Incident Commander.
• Keep the Incident Commander informed of situation and resource status within operations.
7.3.4 The Logistics Section
The Logistics Section is responsible for providing facilities, services, and materials, including personnel to operate the requested equipment for the incident. This section takes on great importance in long-term operations. It is important to note that the Logistics Section functions are geared to support the incident responders.
7.3.5 The Finance/Administration Section
Though sometimes overlooked, the Finance/Administration Section is critical for tracking incident costs and reimbursement accounting. Unless costs and financial operations are carefully recorded and justified, reimbursement of costs is difficult, if not impossible. The Finance/Administration Section is especially important when the incident is of a magnitude that may result in a disaster declaration. Each of these functional areas can be expanded into additional organizational units with further delegation of authority. They also may be contracted as the incident de-escalates.
7.3.6 ICS Concepts and Principles
ICS is composed of major components to ensure quick and effective resource commitment and to minimize disruption to the normal operating policies and procedures of responding organizations. ICS concepts and principles have been tested and proven over time in business and industry and by response agencies at all governmental levels. ICS training is required to ensure that all who may become involved in an incident are familiar with ICS principles. An ICS structure should include:
• Common terminology
• A modular organization
• Integrated communications
• Unity of command
• A unified command structure
• Consolidated IAPs
• A manageable span of control
• Designated incident facilities
• Comprehensive resource management
