APPENDIX I

Fire Management Options Tables

The following set of tables provides information on fire management options in temperate and boreal forest ecosystems of Africa, Australasia, South America, North America and Siberia.

Table 1a. Fire Management Options in Southern Temperate Forests: African continent

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Lowland, Montane and Coastal Evergreen Forests	Thorn Woodland, Woodland mosaics and Broad-leaved tree Savannahs
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Fire intensity depending on degree of disturbance. Forest transition zone and smaller forest patches destroyed. Pioneer species favoured, and sometimes exotic weeds invading	High intensity, fast moving surface fire, with spotty to complete damage to trees. Further opening of Woodlands and increased dominance of grasses
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic andManagement Implications	High biodiversity losses and site degradation.	Repeated high intensity fires will result in overstorey reduction and possible long-term degradation.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Not applicable (only in adjoining fire-prone vegetation).	Low to medium intensity surface fire at 5-30 years fire interval, depending on yearly rainfall. Controlled promotion of desirable grass/herb and tree/bush generation.
	Economic and Management Implications	Not important.	Grazing provision, fuel reduction, and reduction of wildfire risk. Ecological balance and biodiversity maintained.
Fire Exclusion (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Transition zone must be protected from external fires. Extension of transition zone recommended. High stability.	Undesirable increase of species not suitable for grazing purposes. Replacement of grass stratum by succession.
	Economic and Management Implications	Exploitation and disturbance of forests must be avoided. Forest perimeters must be protected and encouraged to expand.	Only feasible if continuously, intensively, grazed, or mechanically cleared.

Table 1b. Fire Management Options in Southern Temperate Forests: African continent

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Industrial Plantations (e.g. even-aged Acacia, Eucalyptus and Pinus plantations)	Fynbos and Sub-Alpine Moorlands
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	High intensity surface, crown and ground fires, with serious site degradation and exotic weed invasion. Plantation stands reverted back to original (natural) vegetation. Weed problems may be increased.	Maintenance of biodiversity, but may favour alien vegetation in some areas.
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications	Management objectives jeopardized if no efficient fire prevention and control system is available.	In areas infested by exotics, increased weed control measures will be required to maintain natural vegetation biodiversity.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Application depending on age and species. Low intensity surface fires applied when and where required for fuel management and fire protection, at 2-5 year intervals, or after clearfelling of the trees. Maintenance of plantations. Ecological improvement and improved decomposition and nutrition.	Medium intensity surface fires, mainly applied during spring and autumn at a 12-25 year rotation depending on yearly rainfall and type. Biodiversity maintenance.
	Economic and Management Implications	Reduced wildfire risk, fuel/slash management, compromises ecological balance and maintains sustainable water supply.	Reduced wildfire risk. Ecological balance maintenance, while maintaining sustainable water supply without risk of site degradation.
Fire Exclusion (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Fuel accumulation, stand access problems and nutrient deficiencies. High risk of uncontrolled high-intensity wildfires.	High risk of uncontrolled, high-intensity fires and lack of biodiversity maintenance.
	Economic and Management Implications	Timber production feasible. Extreme risk of plantation production reduction and site degradation as a result of above-soil fuel and nutrient accumulation.	Only feasible on moist, steep aspects, e.g. when bordering a forest transition zone. Generally not feasible.

Table 1c. Fire Management Options in Southern Temperate Forests: African continent

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Dry Bushlands and Semi-Deserts	Savannahs and Grassland
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Irregular fire occurrence of varying intensities, depending on degree of biomass addition over time. Too frequent fire exposure may result in loss of biodiversity maintenance.	May occur at 2-3 yearly intervals in high altitude montane grassland, but in drier regions at up to 10-15 year intervals. Maintenance of a wildfire climax. Uncontrolled selection of fire adaptive plants.
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications	Site degradation and soil erosion possible.	Grazing potential will depend on grassland type, climatic region and presence of other degrading factors.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Only required when exceeding wildfire climax, which is rare.	Light to medium intensity surface fires, applied very 1-15 years depending on the climatic region and yearly rainfall. Controlled promotion of desirable grass/herb layer and tree/bush regeneration.
	Economic and Management Implications	Not important.	Reduction of wildfire risk and improved grazing provision.
Fire Exclusion (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Slow, but steady increase in wildfire risk, without serious loss of biodiversity maintenance.	Progressive successional development towards bush/tree savannah. Promotion of less fire tolerant species.
	Economic and Management Implications	Feasible for interval up to 20-50 years, but much longer in semi-deserts.	Not feasible for longer periods.

Table 2a. Fire Management Options in Southern Temperate Forests: South American continent

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Evergreen Mixed Forests (Araucaria dominated. Also Northofagus forests)	Thorn Forests (e.g. Selva misionera) and Thorn Tree-Desert Savannahs (e.g. Espinal)
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Fire intensity depending on degree of disturbance. Forest transition zone and smaller forest patches destroyed. Pioneer species favoured.	High intensity, fast moving surface fire, with spotty to complete damage to trees. Further opening of Forests and increased dominance of grasses
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications	High biodiversity losses and site degradation.	Repeated high intensity fires will result in overstorey reduction and possible long-term degradation.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Not applicable (only in adjoining fire-prone vegetation).	Application depending on age and species. Low to medium intensity surface fire at 5-30 years fire intervals, depending on yearly rainfall. Controlled promotion of desirable grass/herb and tree/bush generation.
	Economic and Management Implications	Not important.	Grazing provision, fuel reduction, and reduction of wildfire risk. Ecological balance and biodiversity maintained.
Fire Exclusion (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Transition zone must be protected from external fires. Extension of transition zone recommended. High stability.	Undesirable increase of species not suitable for grazing purposes. Replacement of grass stratum by succession.
	Economic and Management Implications	Exploitation and disturbance of forest must be avoided. Forest perimeters must be protected and encouraged to expand.	Only feasible if continuously, intensively, grazed, or mechanically cleared.

Table 2b. Fire Management Options in Southern Temperate Forests: South American continent

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Industrial Plantations (e.g. even-aged Eucalyptus and Pinus plantations)	Sclerophyllous Scrub (e.g. in Chile) and other Alpine vegetation
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	High intensity surface, crown and ground fires, with serious site degradation and exotic weed invasion. Plantation stands reverted back to original (natural) vegetation. Weed problems may be increased.	Maintenance of biodiversity, but may favour alien vegetation in some areas.
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications	Management objectives jeopardized if no efficient fire prevention and control system is available.	In areas infested by exotics, increased weed control measures will be required to maintain the natural vegetation biodiversity.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Low intensity surface fires applied when and where required for fuel management and fire protection, at 2-5 year intervals, or after clearfelling of the trees. Pinus radiata less suitable and susceptible to fire damage when young. Maintenance of plantations. Ecological improvement and improved decomposition and nutrition.	Variable intensity surface fires, applied at a rotation depending on yearly rainfall and type. Biodiversity maintenance.
	Economic and Management Implications	Reduced wildfire risk, fuel/slash management, compromises ecological balance and maintains sustainable water supply.	Ecological-balance maintenance, without site degradation risk.
Fire Exclusion (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Fuel accumulation, stand access problems and nutrient deficiencies. High risk of uncontrolled high-intensity wildfires.	Risk of uncontrolled fires depending on vegetation type and climatic region. Lack of biodiversity maintenance is possible in higher rainfall regions..
	Economic and Management Implications	Timber production feasible. Extreme risk of plantation production reduction and site degradation as a result of above-soil fuel and nutrient accumulation.	Only feasible on moist, steep aspects, e.g. when bordering a forest transition zone. Generally not feasible.

Table 2c. Fire Management Options in Southern Temperate Forests: South American continent

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Patagonian Semi-Desert Scrub and Cactus Scrub	Pampas and other intensively grazed grasslands
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Feasible under most circumstances. As a result of low biomass addition, wildfire intervals normally very long. Biodiversity maintenance normally not a problem.	May occur at variable intervals, depending on degree of grazing applied. Maintenance of a wildfire climax. Uncontrolled selection of fire adaptive plants.
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications	Only after many years of fire exclusion and above-normal rainfall, some fire hazard may rarely be created.	Grazing potential will depend on grassland type, climatic region and other degrading factors.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Only required when exceeding wildfire climax, which is rare.	Light to medium intensity surface fires, applied every 1-15 years depending on the degree of grazing applied, climatic region and yearly rainfall. Controlled promotion of desirable grass/herb layer and tree/bush regeneration.
	Economic and Management Implications	Not important.	Reduction of wildfire risk and improved grazing provision.
Fire Exclusion (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Slow, but steady increase in wildfire risk, without serious loss of biodiversity maintenance.	Progressive successional development towards bush/tree savannah. Promotion of less fire tolerant species.
	Economic and Management Implications	Seldom feasible.	Not feasible for longer periods.

Table 3a. Fire Management Options in Southern Temperate Forests: Australasia

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Broad-leaved Evergreen and Evergreen Mixed Forests (e.g. Nothofagus forests of Tasmania)	`Sclerophyllous Forest (Eucalyptus spp.), Tree Savannah and Microphyllous Woodland (Mulga, Brigalow, etc.)
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	May occur approx. every 300 years. Fire intensity depending on degree of disturbance by exploitation, fire or grazing. Forest transition zone and smaller forest patches destroyed. Pioneer species favoured.	Fires in Eucalyptus may occur approx. every 100 years. High intensity, fast moving surface fire, with serious to complete damage to trees. Further opening of Forests and Woodlands and increased dominance of grasses
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications	High biodiversity losses and site degradation.	Repeated high intensity fires will result in overstorey reduction and possible long-term site degradation.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Not applicable (only in adjoining fire-prone vegetation, such as grassland on forest edges).	Low to medium intensity surface fire at various fire intervals, depending on climatic characteristics, and grazing history.
	Economic and Management Implications	Not important.	Grazing provision, fuel reduction, and reduction of wildfire risk. Ecological balance and biodiversity maintained.
Fire Exclusion (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Transition zone must be protected from external fires and grazing. Extension of transition zone recommended. High stability.	Undesirable increase of species not suitable for grazing purposes. Replacement of grass stratum by succession.
	Economic and Management Implications	Exploitation and disturbance of forests must be avoided. Forest perimeters must be protected and encouraged to expand.	Seldom feasible.

Table 3b. Fire Management Options in Southern Temperate Forests: Australasia

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Industrial Plantations (e.g. even-aged Pinus plantations)	Mallee Scrub and Alpine Vegetation
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	High intensity surface, crown and ground fires, with serious site degradation and possible exotic weed invasion. Plantation stands reverted back to original (natural) vegetation.	Maintenance of biodiversity.
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications	Management objectives jeopardized if no efficient fire prevention and control system is available.	Not important, providing fire is not experienced too frequently. Then biodiversity will be maintained.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Application depending on age and species. Low to medium intensity surface fires applied when and where required for fuel management and fire protection, at 2-5 year intervals, or after clearfelling of the trees. Maintenance of plantations. Ecological improvement and improved decomposition and nutrition.	Selective application of fire of variable intensity surface fires, applied as and when required depending on yearly rainfall and type. Biodiversity maintenance.

Table 3c. Fire Management Options in Southern Temperate Forests: Australasia

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Semi-Desert Scrub and Hummock Grasslands	Tussock Grassland in various temperate climatic zones
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Irregular fire occurrence of varying intensities, depending on degree of biomass addition over time. Too frequent fire exposure may result in loss of biodiversity maintenance, but normally fires are rare occurrence. However, fire is more common in Hummock grassland, where it needs wind to spread .	May occur at various intervals depending on macro-climatic conditions and particularly yearly rainfall. Can develop intensively burning fires. Maintenance of a wildfire climax, depending on grazing intensity.
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications	Localized site degradation and soil erosion possible, but not common.	Grazing potential will depend on grassland type, climatic region and other degrading factors.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Only required when exceeding wildfire climax, which is rare.	Light to medium intensity surface fires can be applied at various intervals, depending on the climatic region and yearly rainfall. Controlled promotion of desirable grass/herb layer and tree/bush regeneration.
	Economic and Management Implications	Not important.	Reduction of wildfire risk and improved grazing provision.
Fire Exclusion (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Slow, but steady increase in wildfire risk, without serious loss of biodiversity maintenance.	Fuel can accumulate in excess of 14-15 tons/ha fuels loading. Grazing main influencing factor.
	Economic and Management Implications	Feasible for long intervals in semi-deserts.	Not feasible, and biodiversity maintenance will suffer.

Table 4a. Fire Management Options in Northern Temperate and Boreal Forests of Siberia

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Dark coniferous forests (the mountain taiga and forest-steppe zones; the southern and central taiga subzones)	Pine, mixed pine/birch and larch stands (mountain taiga, the forest-steppe zone, and the southern and central taiga subzones)
Uncontrolled wildfires	Fire characteristics, Fire interval and Ecological impacts Implications	Not allowed to burn Wildfire suppression in dark coniferous, pine, and larch forests of southern and central taiga, mountain taiga, and forest-steppe contributes to sustainability of boreal forest resource and ecological potential. The socio-economic situation is improving. Need to decide on some optimal forest fire protection level.
Uncontrolled wildfires	Economic and Management Implications
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning	Fire characteristics, fire interval, ecological impacts	a) excluded; b) ecological functions maintained	а) surface low-intensity fires; fire interval of 5-30 years; b).pollution of the atmosphere, carbon losses
	Economic and Management Implications	а) resources are maintained; b) socio-economic situation gets more stable; c) need to increase forest protection effectiveness and costs	а) partial timber loss; b).regrowth killed; c) fuel loading and fire hazard reduced; d). reduction of forest protection costs
Fire Exclusion Suppression of all human-caused and natural wildfires	Fire characteristics; fire interval; ecological impacts	Suppression of all fires at early stages: а) protection of ecological functions; b) fire interval increases	All-fire suppression at the early or ending stage: а) maintenance of ecological functions
	Economic and management implications	а).increase in protection costs, saving of valuable timber; b).downed woody fuel loading and fire danger rate increase during dry seasons	а).High-value timber protection; b). Fuel loading increases, regrowth becomes over-dense, stand fire resistance decreases, forest protection costs increase

Table 4b. Fire Management Options in Northern Temperate and Boreal Forests of Siberia

Fire Management Option

Ecological, Economic and Management aspects

Larch and pine forest on patchy permafrost (or w/o permafrost (the southern and central taiga subzones)

Larch forest on continuous permafrost (the northern taiga and open woodland subzone)

Uncontrolled Wildfires

Fire characteristics, Fire interval and Ecological impact

Not allowed to burn

Wildfire suppression in dark coniferous, pine, and larch forests of southern and central taiga, mountain taiga, and forest-steppe contributes to sustainability of boreal forest resource and ecological potential. The socio-economic situation is improving. Need to decide on some optimal forest fire protection level.

Wildfires of low to moderate intensity are allowed to burn freely; 100-150-year fire interval:

a) forest cover mosaic becomes more diverse, ecological forest function strengthened, forest productivity increases

Economic and Management Implications

Forest protection costs reduced

Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning)

Fire characteristics, fire interval, ecological impacts

а) moderately intensive surface fires at an interval of 5-20 years, or prescribed burning every 5-15 years;

b) atmosphere polluted, carbon lost

а).prescribed burning is allowed in mature and old growth; special burning is unreasonable from the economic, restoration, and ecological viewpoints;

b). Degradation of protection and ecological functions of forests, pollution of the atmosphere, carbon losses

Economic and Management Implications

а) Partial loss of timber;

b) Regrowth killed;

c) fuel loading and fire danger reduced;

d) money-saving forest protection

а) Timber losses;

b) post-fire forest development promoted;

c) fire hazard and protection costs reduced

Fire Exclusion Suppression of all human-caused and natural wildfires

Fire characteristics; fire interval, ecological impacts

Suppression of all wildfires at the early stage:

а) ecological functions are maintained;

b) fire interval increases

Suppression of all wildfires:

a) ecological functions are maintained;

b) fire interval gets longer;

c).forest cover gets less mosaic and biodiversity decreases

Economic and management implications

а) high-value timber preservation;

b) increase in fuel loading and fire hazard;

c) high fire suppression resource costs;

d) protection cost increase is inevitable

а) increase in fuel loading and fire danger rate;

b) Occurrence of conditions favourable for high-intensity fires;

c) huge expenses on aerial and ground fire protection resources;

d) continuous increase in ineffective expenses on forest fire protection

Table 5. Fire Management Options in Pine Forests of East-European and Siberian forest and forest-steppe zones

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Pine Forests of East-European and Siberian forest and forest-steppe zones
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	1. Surface fire, low intensity (early or late fire season), little damage to trees (density of vital stand >0.40), burn type - "stand burn", thickness of retained (unburned) duff >2 cm, elimination of undergrowth, weak natural regeneration of pine 2. Surface fire, medium to high-intensity (high fire season), spotty damage to trees (density of vital stand 0.05-0.40), burn type - "sparse stand burn". 2.1. Retained duff <2 cm, successful pine regeneration. 2.2. Retained duff >2 cm, weak pine regeneration. 3. Crown fire, high intensity, (high fire season), completely damage of stand. 3.1. Burn type "open burn with peripheral pine regeneration". 3.1.1. Retained duff <2 cm, successful pine regeneration. 3.1.2. Retained duff >2 cm, weak pine regeneration. 3.2. Burn type "open burn without pine seed sources, natural regeneration of deciduous (leafed) trees.
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications	1. Fuel and hazard reduction, maintenance or increase of tree growth, elimination of undergrowth, sanitary selective thinning, promotion for natural regeneration of pine. 2. Partial loss of timber, decrease of stand productivity, creation of uneven-aged stand, elimination of undergrowth, insect infestation; clean cut. 2.1 Natural renewal of pine. 2.2 Promotion for natural regeneration of pine. 3. Complete loss of timber. 3.1.1. Natural renewal of pine. 3.1.2. Promotion for natural regeneration of pine. 3.2. Stand replacement, artificial renewal of pine.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Surface burning, low to medium Intensity, 5-25 years interval, in the early or late fire season; little damage of trees, elimination of under phytocenose layer, improvement of environment for pine regeneration
	Economic and Management Implications	Reduction of fuel, fire danger and fire management costs; improvement of pine regeneration; decision-support system required.
Fire Exclusion (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires, low and medium intensity; prolongation of fire return interval, increase of fire hazard; deterioration of environment for pine regeneration
	Economic, Silvicultural and Management Consequences	High costs of suppression, saving of timber values; establishment of fire-sensitive tree species.

Table 6. Fire Management Options in Boreal and Northern Temperate Forests of Canada

Fire Management Option

Ecological, Economic and Management aspects

Boreal/TaigaConiferous Forests

Temperate Forests

Fire Monitoring Zone (no suppression of fires)

Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts

Large high-intensity crown fires predominate.

Pine and spruce forests adapted to fire and regenerate naturally.

Fire return interval generally ~100 years.

Primarily lightning-caused fires.

Account for ~50% of Canadian area burned.

Not applicable – all temperate forests receive full suppression.

Economic and Management Implications

Essentially natural fire regime.

Fires actioned only when values threatened.

Applies to roughly 50% of Canadian forest area, primarily in northern regions of boreal shield, taiga shield and taiga plains ecozones where trees are generally unmerchantable.

No economic impacts

Fire Exclusion Zone

(suppression of all natural and

human-caused wildfires

Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts

~98% of fires controlled while small while 2% grow large, account for 98% of area burned in exclusion zone, primarily as large, high-intensity crown fires in pine and spruce forests.

Fire return interval ~200-1000 years.

Human-caused fires dominate but lightning fires account for most of area burned.

Fires generally smaller in less flammable mixed woods where pine and spruce are mixed with fir, aspen, maples and oaks – aggressive suppression more successful.

Fire return interval >1000 years.

Economic and Management Implications

Intensive protection of human and industrial values (particularly forest resource)

Applies to southern regions of boreal shield and boreal plains ecozones.

Major component of $500 million annual Canadian fire costs.

Similar to boreal exclusion zone.

Located in southern regions of eastern and western Canada.

Fire activity much less than in boreal.

Prescribed Fire

(underburning in forest stands, and removal of logging residue)

Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts

Prescribed fire generally not applied in boreal zone.

Unnecessary for adequate regeneration.

Increasing prescribed fire use for ecosystem maintenance and forest health.

Some burning of logging residue to promote artificial regeneration.

Economic and Management Implications

Logging slash areas often present high fire hazard but burning is an economic means of site preparation

Table 7a. Fire management options in Western mixed coniferous (pine and fir) and high-elevation lodgepole pine forests in the lower 48 United States of America

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Western mixed coniferous (pine and fir) forests	High elevation lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forests
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Relatively short-return interval (5-20 years) surface fires were dominant in pre-colonial times. Intense crown killing fires at long intervals (>300 years) dependent on site moisture conditions and changes in climate. Ignition sources: Lightning and Native Americans.	Long return interval (200-400 year) crown killing fires. Typically ignited by lightning, with the return interval determined by successional changes in fuels and periodic drought.
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications	Intensive fire suppression in many areas has encouraged in-growth of shade tolerant species and accumulation of fuels. Today, wildfires in such areas quickly become of the crown-killing variety.	Fires in this type can be extensive in the northern Rockies, with suppression difficult in very dry years. Increase human development in such areas has resulted in increased liability.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Where fuels permit, light surface fires at 10-20 year intervals. Mechanical fuel reduction can be coupled with prescribed fire to restore conditions conducive to such fires	Naturally heavy fuels limit opportunities for use of artificial ignition prescribed fires. Natural ignition prescribed fire programs have presented difficulties (e.g., Yellowstone), but have been successful in areas of broken terrain.
	Economic and Management Implications	The cost of fuel restoration on 40 million ha of such forests is estimated at $1.5 billion each year for the next 30 years. Much controversy surrounds the specific restoration plans.	Limited
Fire Exclusion (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Fires in these forests cannot be suppressed indefinitely… only delayed. The ecological impacts of suppression are described above.	Fire exclusion in these forests is effective only when weather conditions are favourable.
	Economic and Management Implications	Over the past 75 years, the majority of costs for fire suppression in the U.S. have been in this forest type.	Under dry conditions, suppression activities are directed at protection of life and property.

Table 7b. Fire management options in Eastern deciduous forests and Southeastern longleaf and loblolly pine savannahs and flatwoods of the United States of America

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Eastern deciduous forests	Southeastern longleaf (Pinus palustris) and loblolly pine (P. taeda) savannahs and flatwoods
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Infrequent, associated with periodic drought and other disturbance such as hurricanes that provide woody debris. Short return interval surface fires may have been set in many areas by Native Americans in pre-colonial times.	Surface fires a 4-6 year intervals in savannahs, longer intervals in shrubby flatwoods.
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications	Very limited.	Very limited, and easily suppressed.
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Occasionally set to encourage oak and hickory regeneration (experimental) or to maintain savannah-like conditions at the forest margin with the prairie.	Surface fires are typically set at 1-4 year intervals to improve seedbed conditions, control hardwood ingrowth and minimize wildfire risk.
	Economic and Management Implications	Very limited.	Widespread and economically very important.
Fire Exclusion (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Not a significant issue	Fire exclusion in these types typically encourages in-growth of shrubs and shade-tolerant hardwoods and can lead to permanent type conversion.
	Economic and Management Implications		Costs and ease of suppression vary with climatic and soil conditions that affect fuel moisture. Because pines are commercially the most important species, fire exclusion can have significant long-term costs.

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Larch and pine forest on patchy permafrost (or w/o permafrost (the southern and central taiga subzones)	Larch forest on continuous permafrost (the northern taiga and open woodland subzone)
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Fire characteristics, Fire interval and Ecological impact	Not allowed to burn Wildfire suppression in dark coniferous, pine, and larch forests of southern and central taiga, mountain taiga, and forest-steppe contributes to sustainability of boreal forest resource and ecological potential. The socio-economic situation is improving. Need to decide on some optimal forest fire protection level.	Wildfires of low to moderate intensity are allowed to burn freely; 100-150-year fire interval: a) forest cover mosaic becomes more diverse, ecological forest function strengthened, forest productivity increases
Uncontrolled Wildfires	Economic and Management Implications		Forest protection costs reduced
Prescribed Fire (natural and human-caused wildfires, prescribed burning)	Fire characteristics, fire interval, ecological impacts	а) moderately intensive surface fires at an interval of 5-20 years, or prescribed burning every 5-15 years; b) atmosphere polluted, carbon lost	а).prescribed burning is allowed in mature and old growth; special burning is unreasonable from the economic, restoration, and ecological viewpoints; b). Degradation of protection and ecological functions of forests, pollution of the atmosphere, carbon losses
	Economic and Management Implications	а) Partial loss of timber; b) Regrowth killed; c) fuel loading and fire danger reduced; d) money-saving forest protection	а) Timber losses; b) post-fire forest development promoted; c) fire hazard and protection costs reduced
Fire Exclusion Suppression of all human-caused and natural wildfires	Fire characteristics; fire interval, ecological impacts	Suppression of all wildfires at the early stage: а) ecological functions are maintained; b) fire interval increases	Suppression of all wildfires: a) ecological functions are maintained; b) fire interval gets longer; c).forest cover gets less mosaic and biodiversity decreases
	Economic and management implications	а) high-value timber preservation; b) increase in fuel loading and fire hazard; c) high fire suppression resource costs; d) protection cost increase is inevitable	а) increase in fuel loading and fire danger rate; b) Occurrence of conditions favourable for high-intensity fires; c) huge expenses on aerial and ground fire protection resources; d) continuous increase in ineffective expenses on forest fire protection

Fire Management Option	Ecological, Economic and Management aspects	Boreal/TaigaConiferous Forests	Temperate Forests
Fire Monitoring Zone (no suppression of fires)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Large high-intensity crown fires predominate. Pine and spruce forests adapted to fire and regenerate naturally. Fire return interval generally ~100 years. Primarily lightning-caused fires. Account for ~50% of Canadian area burned.	Not applicable – all temperate forests receive full suppression.
Fire Monitoring Zone (no suppression of fires)	Economic and Management Implications	Essentially natural fire regime. Fires actioned only when values threatened. Applies to roughly 50% of Canadian forest area, primarily in northern regions of boreal shield, taiga shield and taiga plains ecozones where trees are generally unmerchantable. No economic impacts
Fire Exclusion Zone (suppression of all natural and human-caused wildfires	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	~98% of fires controlled while small while 2% grow large, account for 98% of area burned in exclusion zone, primarily as large, high-intensity crown fires in pine and spruce forests. Fire return interval ~200-1000 years. Human-caused fires dominate but lightning fires account for most of area burned.	Fires generally smaller in less flammable mixed woods where pine and spruce are mixed with fir, aspen, maples and oaks – aggressive suppression more successful. Fire return interval >1000 years.
	Economic and Management Implications	Intensive protection of human and industrial values (particularly forest resource) Applies to southern regions of boreal shield and boreal plains ecozones. Major component of $500 million annual Canadian fire costs.	Similar to boreal exclusion zone. Located in southern regions of eastern and western Canada. Fire activity much less than in boreal.
Prescribed Fire (underburning in forest stands, and removal of logging residue)	Fire Characteristics, Fire Interval, and Ecological Impacts	Prescribed fire generally not applied in boreal zone. Unnecessary for adequate regeneration.	Increasing prescribed fire use for ecosystem maintenance and forest health. Some burning of logging residue to promote artificial regeneration.
	Economic and Management Implications		Logging slash areas often present high fire hazard but burning is an economic means of site preparation