4. IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMMES

4.1 Sheep

4.1.1 India

1. Selection within indigenous breeds

Bhat et al. (1980), Acharya (1982) and Acharya and Bhat (1984) • have reviewed a large number of Indian experiments aimed at increasing either body weight or fleece quality in indigenous breeds. Most of these have had neither continuity in time nor consistency in purpose, and the main gains from the studies have been estimates of phenotypic and genetic parameters for the breeds used. From these estimates it has been concluded that selection on body weight at 6 months improves market weight, yearling body weight and ewe productivity, while an index based on body weight at 6 months and greasy fleece weight would improve fleece quality. Selection against medullation percentage would show a significant reduction, with a correlated decrease in average fibre diameter, body weight and fertility.

Improvement programmes through selection of indigenous breeds, using better pedigreed rams, have been undertaken in a number of Indian States: in Rajasthan with the Bikaneri and its derivatives, in Andra Pradesh with the Nellore Mandya, in Uttar Pradesh with the Muzzafarnagri (in the western districts where sheep have been adapted to irrigated agriculture), and in Punjab and Haryana with the Nali and Lohi.

Although many programmes have been launched by various State Governments to improve the productivity of native village sheep flocks by the use of improved breeds, the results by and large have not been satisfactory.

2. Use of tropical improver breeds

Crosses produced by grading up the Bellary and other coarse-wooled hairy breeds with the Bikaneri have shown improvement in greasy wool weight and wool quality, as indicated by a decline in medullation percentage and fibre diameter. Superior Indian carpet wool and mutton breeds have been extensively used for upgrading; for example, the Nali and Lohi of Punjab and Haryana have been widely used on local populations in the Indo-Gangetic Plains, with some rewarding results, though not in the case of the cross between the Nali and the Muzzafarnagri in irrigated areas.

North Indian carpet wool breeds have also been used on South Indian woolless mutton breeds to introduce fleece cover; in most crossbreds there was an improvement in fleece quality and quantity, but none in body weight gain, dressing percentage or efficiency of feed conversion.

By and large these experiments have shown a marginal improvement in wool characteristics, but in the absence of any field recording system it is difficult to evaluate the impact of the improvement programmes on populations adapted to various ecological niches. The programmes have shown, however, that within breed selection is superior to the use of improver breeds.

3. Use of temperate breeds

Crossbreeding with superior temperate breeds to improve wool quality and mutton production has been extensively used, and the results have recently been reported by Acharya (1982) and Acharya and Bhat (1984). Most of these experiments were done to improve wool weight and quality; breeds of three fleece types (fine carpet wool, Chokla; medium carpet wool, Jaisalmeri and coarse carpet wool, Malpura) were crossed with Rambouillet and interbred at various levels of exotic genes (Acharya and Mohan, 1979). Fine wool (Avastara) and superior carpet wool strains (Avakalin) have been produced from these experiments (Tables 8, 9 and 10).

A classic example of success in introducing superior temperate inheritance into indigenous sheep with the objective of developing a fine wool breed is the Kashmir Merino, which is now a well recognized Indian breed, used for apparel wool. This breed is a result of crossing 4 breeds of sheep in the valley of Kashmir, initially with Australian Merino, then with Rambouillet and Russian Merino. About 75-82% of genes in the breed are now from the three exotics, the majority coming from Russian Merino. The present population of the Kashmir Merino exceeds 1 million.

Table 8 AVERAGES AND STANDARD ERRORS OF GREASY FLEECE WEIGHT AND WOOL
QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF INDIAN SHEEP BREEDS CHOKLA, NALI AND
PATTANWADI AND THEIR CROSSES WITH RAMBOUILLET AND MERINO
(Arora et al. , 1983; Acharya and Bhat, 1984)

Numbers of observations in parentheses

The results of crossbreeding utilizing Dorset and Suffolk are given in Tables 11 and 12. Suffolk crosses were generally superior to Dorset crosses, but in many cases there was not much improvement in either cross. However, inter-breeding of Dorset and Suffolk crossbreds showed better results.

Similarly, Suffolk, Dorset and Corriedale have been used on large field populations to develop mutton type strains. In a number of cases this experience has not been rewarding. A number of crossbreds so produced have not survived when run together with the natives, particularly when the advantage of special care and management of the experimental farms was withdrawn. With most of the crossbreeding experiments, except where sustained efforts have been made as in the case of the Kashmir Merino, the results have not been successful. The general situation is that under the prevailing realities of sheep husbandry, it may not be possible for crossbreds run under village conditions of management and survival to outdo the native well adapted breed types on the basis of lifetime production. Since no data are available on such comparative lifetime production records it is difficult to make any positive recommendations, but by and large the results have not been satisfactory (Bhadula and Bhat, 1981; Bhat, Pran P. et al. 1978 and 1981.

Table 9 AVERAGES AND STANDARD ERRORS OF GREASY FLEECE WEIGHT, WOOL
QUALITY ATTRIBUTES AND SURVIVABILITY OF INDIGENOUS AND SYNTHETICS
(Arora et al., 1983)

^** P <0.01
Number of observations in parentheses

Russian Karakul sheep have been imported into India and crossed with Indian coarse carpet wool breeds for lamb pelt production under both hot and cold arid climates. The performance of Karakuls in both cases with respect to growth, survivability, greasy fleece production, productive performance and pelt quality were highly satisfactory. The crosses of Karakul with coarse carpet wool breeds showed significant improvement in pelt quality over the natives. There was, however, a large variation in pelt quality, and if selection within the crossbred population is resorted to, it is bound to lead to significant improvement in Indian pelt sheep (Acharya et al., 1980).

4.1.2 Afghanistan

Very little information is available concerning sheep production in Afghanistan. Studies were conducted for improving the productivity of Ghiljai, Hazargie and Gadik breeds through crossbreeding with Turkish

Table 10 AVERAGES AND STANDARD ERRORS OF GREASY FLEECE WEIGHT AND WOOL
QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF INDIAN SHEEP BREEDS MALPURA AND DECCANI AND THEIR CROSSES WITH RAMBOUILLET AND DECCANI (Arora et al., 1983; Acharya and Bhat, 1984)

Numbers of observations in parentheses.

Table 11 AVERAGES AND STANDARD ERRORS FOR CHARACTERS RELATED TO FEEDLOT
PERFORMANCE OF INDIGENOUS AND CROSSBRED SHEEP BRED FOR MUTTON
(Arora et al., 1983)

Number of observations in parentheses.

Merino, Russian Merino and Columbia. There was an improvement in crossbreds over indigenous breeds in wool weight and quality and in body weights at State farms. However, exotic breeds or their crosses could not survive under the conditions of nutrition existing in the villages. No trace of these crossbreds can be found today.

Table 12 AVERAGES AND STANDARD ERRORS FOR CHARACTERS RELATED TO FEEDLOT
PERFORMANCE OF INDIGENOUS AND CROSSBRED SHEEP GROWN FOR MUTTON
(Bohra, 1984)

^1/ Feed composition: Zizyphus numularia or cowpea hay 30 parts, maize 40 parts, groundnut cake 20 parts, molasses 7 parts, mineral mixture 2 parts and common salt 1 part.

Number of observation in parentheses.

The Karakul Institute in Afghanistan is providing facilities for grading and marketing of pelts. The efforts made by the Institute have increased the proportion of grey pelts from 30 to 70%, and the proportion of top grade pelts from 30 to 80%.

4.1.3 Iraq

1. Body weights and growth rate

Hamdani sheep are the largest of all Iraqi breeds at all ages, followed by the Awassi and Ne'oimi. The smallest are Arabi and Karradi. Most sheep reach their mature weight between three and five years of age, the relatively fast growers such as Hamdani reaching it earlier. Some of them have reached a weight of 100 and 115 kg at Aski-Kalak Station at 18 months; males are always heavier than females and singles tend to be heavier than twins, differences decreasing after weaning (Table 6a).

2. Fleece weight

Fleece weights are heaviest in Hamdani, followed by Karradi and lowest in Arabi. It is the other way around with respect to fineness and length, where Arabi wool is finest and shortest and Hamdani and Karradi coarse and long (Table 6). Weight at the first shearing is always lower, since many farmers shear their sheep for the first time at 9 months of age (September); otherwise sheep are shorn in April or early May depending on the locality. The heaviest fleeces are produced when sheep are three to four years old. Most fleeces yield between 70 to 80% clean wool, depending on the breed.

3. Milk production

Ne'oimi and Awassi ewes are the best milk producers, followed by Hamdani. With better nutrition, several ewes have given up to one kilogramme of milk per day; individual records of 200 kg to 300 kg in a lactation period of 150 days are also known. The milking season usually lasts four to five months, while the fat percentage is between 5.5 and 7.5 and increases with age.

4. Fertility and lambing percentage

These traits are mostly dependent on environmental conditions, particularly feeding and health. Percent of ewes lambing ranged from 50 to 90, Hamdani and Karradi being the most fertile followed by Awassi and Ne'oimi. Lambing percentages (twinning) were highest among Hamdani and Awassi. The flock of the State Board of Agricultural Research at Sho'la has a twinning percent of 25, but in other breeds twinning is of little significance.

5. Lamb mortality

Nothing is known about embryo losses in Iraqi breeds, and still births are quite rare. Lamb mortalities from birth to weaning are not very high in most experimental flocks, being less than 5-10%. The sheep are hardy and can withstand scarcity of feed and weather fluctuations except for the Hamdani and Karradi, which suffer from high summer temperatures.

6. Lamb fattening

Lamb fattening is an important traditional enterprise in Iraq and consumers show a marked preference for mutton. About one third of the 11.7 million sheep are fattened in the five Northern Mohafadas each year, with 2.3 million in Nineveh alone, more than 60% of the latter being raised in the village Kikjally near Mosul city. Most of the sheep fattened are shipped southward to Baghdad, the main consuming centre of Iraq, utilizing about 50 percent of all meat produced in the country. Almost all fattening yards use barley alone with some straw, salt being given occasionally, and green roughage by some farmers. Sometimes the sheep are allowed to graze during the day. Feed is offered twice daily.

7. Selection within Iraqi breeds

The development of the Hamadi breed has been one of the major results of selection within the Karradi. Experiments using body weight as a selection criterion have been conducted at the Abu-Ghraib Experimental Station and also under the UNDP sponsored project at Akisi Kalak, with varying degrees of success; by and large the experiments were successful in increasing body weights both in Awassi and Hamdani breeds, with an increase of about 6 kg in one generation. Unfortunately no sustained efforts in this direction have been made.

8. Crossing among Iraqi breeds

No sustained long range experiment has been done involving crossing among various Iraqi breeds. A small study on the preweaning weights of crosses of Awassi, Karradi and Arabi showed no significant difference among the purebreds in body weights at four months of age. There was some marginal increase in the crosses, particularly (A x K), which was also superior to all other genetic groups for ewe traits, but no definite recommendation could be made on the basis of these results since they were based on very few numbers, and the design of the experiment was not optimal.

9. Crossing with temperate breeds for increased meat production

An experiment was conducted to increase prolificacy in the Hamdani breed, using purebred Hamdani and Finnish Landrace and their reciprocal crosses. The ewe progeny of Finn rams and Hamdani ewes showed a drastic reduction in body weights at weaning and first oestrus, compared with pure Hamdani, with no significant decrease in age at first oestrus. There was, however, a marked increase in prolificacy in the halfbreds, which produced 70% multiple births.

10. Crossing with temperate breeds for wool production

A number of attempts have been made to introduce temperate breeds either as possible replacer breeds or to produce crossbreds with fast growth rate and finer wool. Most of these attempts have not yielded the desired result. The introduction of Merino sheep in a breed replacement strategy has failed due to their non-adaptation to the harsh environment of North and Central Iraq. Crossbreds have generally done well both in introducing finer fleeces and faster growth, but in the absence of any national strategy to introduce crossbreds these investigations have not made any impact.

4.1.4 Iran

1. Crossing among Iranian breeds

A considerable body of information has become available on the performance of indigenous breeds under semi-intensive and intensive conditions of husbandry, but within breed selection has not been attempted. Crossbreeding among Karakul, Mehraban, Neini, Kizil and Bakhtiari breeds did not express any significant positive heterosis in terms of lamb production.

2. Crossing with temperate breeds

Crosses of Karakul, Mehraban and Neini with Corriedale and Targhee have shown marginal improvement in pre-weaning and feelot gains and weights (Farid et al., 1977). Results of crossbreeding with Ile-de-France and various types of Merino rams on the ewes of indigenous breeds have given encouraging results (Yalcin, 1979) and a new fine wool sheep, Magbuillet, has been evolved through crossing Moghani ewes with Rambouillet rams. Introduction of Israeli Awassi genes into local Baluchi and Shal breeds has improved fleece weight and milk yield of the crosses.

Crossbreeding involving Suffolk and Targhee sheep from USA, and Chios from Greece with indigenous sheep of Iran has not yielded any satisfactory results because of prevailing nutritional and management conditions. The situation was further aggravated by difficulty in natural mating between thin-tailed exotic rams and fat-tailed indigenous ewes.

3. Feedlot performance

Studies on the feedlot performance and carcass yield of mature Bakhtiari, Baluchi, Kallakui and Kizil rams and ewes on different levels of nutrition for 120 days have indicated the consistent superiority of Kizil animals followed by Bakhtiari, Baluchi and Kallakui in descending order (Saleh et al. , 1972). The Baluchi and Kallakui differed little from each other. In carcass composition the breed differences were small and not consistent in various sex and treatment groups. Studies on the effects of castration and nutrition on fattening performance have shown highest daily gains for Kizil followed by Baluchi and Kallakui.

4. Reproductive performance

Studies on reproductive performance, breeding season, oestrus synchronization etc. for increasing lamb production (Demiruren et al., 1971 and International Sheep and Goat Institute Report, 1977) Have shown 25-27% twinning percentage in most breeds, and breeding season lengths of about 7 months. The effect of docking and castration on the weight and carcass growth of lambs has shown (Demiruren et al., 1971 and Saleh, 1976) that the tail fat was deposited as suEcutaneous/intramuscular/internal fat with no change in lean to fat ratio.

5. Future trends

The present sheep production and improvement will of necessity have to come from native breeds. There are no large within-breed selection programmes combined with field recording of performance in any of these breeds. There is, however, a tradition of ram rotation and the breeders themselves exercise a certain amount of selection on the basis of body weights and prolificacy. The action programmes are primarily directed to this end. From the results of experimental crossbreeding, it is not possible to extend to any large tracts in the country the few pockets available for crossbreeding.

4.1.5 Turkey

1. Problems relating to selection

Of the 41.9 million sheep in Turkey, approximately 40.5 million are of native breeds. These sheep are not being subject to vithin-breed selection except at Government Experiment Stations and in organized flocks. Estimates of genetic and phenotypic parameters for different production characteristics are available for some breeds. Main limiting factors in initiating a programme of selection are the lack of stratification within the breeds, lack of recording in the field and the number of characteristics to be considered in selection. It would be desirable to establish nucleus flocks in the field, in addition to those at the State farms; this would be useful in creating stratification in the breeds, and in disseminating genetic improvement gained in the nucleus flocks tc other flocks by the sale of rams. Such an arrangement is particularly important for Awassi, Kivircik and Merino breeds.

2. Crossing with temperate breeds for wool production

Crossbreeding of Kivircik and White Karaman sheep with mutton Merino rams since the 1930s has led to the formation of two Turkish-type Merinos, viz. Karacabey Merino and Central Anatolian Merino respectively (Yalcin, 1979).

3. Crossing with temperate breeds for meat and wool production

When White Karaman were crossed with Ile-de-France rams, the F,s and F₂s showed significant improvement in body and fleece weights, milk yield and conception rate, while sheep with 60-70% Ile-de-France genes were considered adaptable.

4. Crossing for meat production

Crossbreds involving Rambouillet and Daglic have shown significant improvement in growth rate in F₁ and F₂ lambs over either of the parent breeds. Results of crossbreeding Daglie, Merino and Ile-de-France sheep have shown that the Ile-de-France as terminal rams gave considerable advantage in growth rate and carcass quality.

5. Crossing for milk production

Introduction of Awassi genes into White Karaman has significantly improved milk production.

4.1.6 China

Improvement of sheep by crossing indigenous breeds with exotic fine wool breeds has made rapid progress, with reasonably good results. Three new fine wool strains viz., Xinjiang fine wool (now renamed Chinese Merino), Northeast fine wool and Gansu Alpine fine wool have been evolved. The average fleece of improved (crossbred) fine wool and medium wool sheep is two to three times heavier than that of indigenous coarse wool sheep. There is also improvement in wool quality (Cheng, 1984).

4.1 Goats

4.2.1 General

In the Asian region goat improvement programmes are organized only in the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent, Malaysia and the Philippines. In the Middle East, improvement programmes are concentrated on the Angora breed. Other breeds have been left alone by the developement agencies and government initiatives, and are mostly looked after by the breeders themselves, who use traditional methods of improvement. These involve selection based on phenotype and the needs of the region, with some exchange of bucks. The major selection traits are body weight gains and prolificacy, with the aim of increasing meat production.

In the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent the development agencies have introduced exotic temperate breeds, mainly Saanen, Alpine, Toggenburg and German, to increase milk production in indigenous goats. Similar programmes are available in Thailand, the Philippines and Korea.

On Government farms and field stations and in research projects, the crossbreds have shown improvement in milk yield, age at first kidding and body weights. In some cases they have been produced in villages, where they have been given better nutrition; no data are available on their performance when run together with native breeds. So far, large crossbred field populations are not available on the basis of which conclusions could be drawn. Wherever attempts have been made to introduce exotic genes under village conditions the level has not exceeded 50%, and crossbreds have generally not survived as well as the natives. It is unlikely that crossbreds will successfully replace native goats except in small urban pockets. Improvement programmes should concentrate on the native breeds; within-breed selection combined with field recording programmes should yield results.

4.2.2 Selection within indigenous breeds

Selection for milk production in goats has been largely restricted to experimental flocks. Studies in India have shown selection in Beetal goats to be effective.

4.2.3 Crossing among indigenous breeds

The Jamnapari and Beetal have been used extensively in the Asian region for upgrading local goat populations for meat and milk. While in the Indian sub-continent they have been used primarily as improver breeds for increasing size and milk production, in Indonesian villages and in other countries they have been used primarily for meat. Crossbreeding among indigenous breeds, especially Jamnapari, Beetal, Barbari, Black Bengal and Sirohi, reflected the usefulness of Jamnapari and Beetal as improver breeds for body size, body weight and milk production in smaller breeds.

4.2.4 Crossing among indigenous breeds for chevon production

The wide range of variability in body weights and reproduction rates can be effectively utilized for improving meat production through crossbreeding/grading. The primary results of such experiments in India involving Jamnapari, Beetal, Barbari and Black Bengal showed that the crosses of Beetal x Jamnapari and Barbari x Jamnapari were inferior to purebred Jamnapari. The Barbari x Beetal crosses were, however, superior to Jamnapari x Beetal. The magnitude of improvement was 18% in carcass weight, 8% in dressing percentage and 18% in bone percentage over purebred Beetal.

The Beetal x Barbari crosses were superior to Jamnapari x Beetal and Barbari x Beetal. The magnitude of improvement in Beetal x Barbari was 33% in carcass weight, 2.5% in dressing percentage and 16% in bone percentage over purebred Barbari. The Beetal x Sirohi crossbreds were superior to Sirohi, the magnitude of improvement in carcass weight and dressing percentage being 13% and 1.4% respectively over purebred Sirohi. The results of indigenous crosses revealed specific combining ability for various indigenous breeds, but Jamnapari, the largest Indian breed, did not "nick" well with any other indigenous breeds.

4.2.5 Crossing with exotic breeds for milk production

Crosses of indigenous breeds with exotic dairy breeds (viz. Alpine and Saanen) in India showed substantial improvement in Beetal and Malabari halfbreds. Milk production and lactation length improved greatly in both Alpine and Saanen halfbreds, Saanen halfbreds being superior to Alpine. Three-quarters Saanen with Beetal were superior to 1/2 Saanen x 1/2 Beetal. The crosses of Beetal with Alpine and Saanen showed marginal differences from the Beetal in age at first kidding, kidding interval and service period. The most commonly used exotic breeds are Alpine, Saanen and Anglo-Nubian. Results of Alpine and Saanen have shown that there was an improvement in milk yield of almost 100%. Anglo-Nubian crosses with Beetal showed maximum improvement in slaughter weight.

4.2.6 Crossing with exotic breeds for fibre production

Chegu and Changthangi pashmina goats in India have an annual . Production of 132 g and 214 g of pashmina (cashmere) respectively, with an average fibre diameter of 12.4 + 0.7 μm. There are no Angora goats in India, but crossing exotic Angoras onto indigenous Gaddi and Sangamneri Produced lower quantities of finer and shorter mohair.