In Botswana most of the meat is wild

Thomas M. Butynski and Wolfgang von Richter

Thomas M. Butynski, U.S. Peace Corps, and Wolfgang von Richter, FAO, are wildlife biologists serving with the Department of Wildlife and National Parks of Botswana.

The authors give a detailed picture of wildlife policies, administration, management, and the economics of utilization in one of the most game-bountiful countries of the world. They stress the importance of land-use policies based on the ecological constraints of the country.

Both in quantity and variety of animal species Botswana is one of the great wildlife areas of the world. It is also one of the countries which the United Nations classifies as economically least developed, a remote, mostly semidesert land which came to political independence in 1965. The interconnected tasks of management and utilization of its riches in game are therefore particularly important for Botswana, and of special interest to students of wildlife management.

There are 46 species of wildlife in Botswana which are jackal-sized or larger, and game herds numbering as many as 100 000 animals have been recorded in the recent past. That wildlife still persists in Botswana on this scale is due not only to a great diversity of types of habitat but also to the fact that much of the country, being semidesert marginal land, will support neither grazing nor crop farming. In addition, parts of the northern sector are infested by tsetse fly, carrying nagana or sleeping sickness to which men and cattle - but not wildlife - are prone. Thus, large areas of sensitive wildlife habitat throughout the country still have not been disturbed or overexploited by man.

About 15 percent of Botswana is currently classified as national park or game reserve land, covering a cross section of important wildlife habitats (Campbell, 1973). Botswana is one of the few countries in Africa where major efforts are being made to develop land-use plans for the country as a whole, based on the ecological constraints of the semiarid environment. Kenya is making similar efforts.

In the development of land-use policies various factors are involved. In addition to political factors, they include geography, ecology, demography, ethnology, sociology and economics.

Botswana, the former British protectorate of Bechuanaland, became a member of the British Commonwealth in 1966. It is a land-locked country nearly surrounded by while-ruled lands. Namibia (South West Africa) is on the west and north; Zambia and Rhodesia on the east, and South Africa on the southeast and south. Its economy is closely linked to that of South Africa and it uses the same currency; however, it is making efforts to orient itself commercially and psychologically to Zambia and other independent African states.

A brightening future

The country's economically bleak future has brightened since independence with the discovery of substantial mineral wealth - diamonds, copper and nickel-which is in the process of being developed through investment from the World Bank as well as a number of private companies from South Africa, the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States.

The total area of Botswana is 222 000 square miles (577 000 square kilometres), most of it tableland, with a mean altitude of 3 300 feet (1 000 metres). Ecologically, most of the country lies in Africa's southwestern arid zone; the remaining area, about a third, in the northeast is in the continent's southern savanna zone. About 80 percent of the surface soil is of the Kalahari sand type and contains little permanent surface water. The low gradients of the land in the north, however, have led to the formation of the world's largest inland delta, the Okavango swamps, an area of 6 500 square miles (17 000 square kilometres), consisting of a series of interconnecting river systems, of which the Okavango river is the most important.

The country's average annual rainfall, which comes in a single season from November to April, declines from 700 mm in the northeast to 150 mm in the subdesert of the southwest.

Botswana's population is 657 000 (1973). The majority of the people are ethnically Bantu, grouped into eight main tribes. There are in addition 30 000 Bushmen, 5 000 Europeans and small groups of Asians, Hottentots and people of mixed origin. About 80 percent of the population live in the countryside, at a subsistence or near-subsistence level raising cattle, maize, sorghum and cotton, and by hunting.

Soon after independence the Government began to formulate and put into effect wildlife policies and regulations and to create a wildlife administration. Assistance for this came (and is still coming) from the United Nations Development Programme and FAO, and bilateral aid was received from a number of countries, notably the United Kingdom, but also South Africa, Canada, the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States. The policy is to combine wildlife management and utilization for the benefit of the population as a whole, but in particular for people in the countryside who traditionally utilize wildlife (Campbell, 1972, 1973; Child, 1970; von Richter, tendencies, 1969).

Poaching has been carried out in Botswana on a commercial scale, especially across the border from South Africa. These skins and trophies were introduced as evidence in a court trial. Within the last few years the problem has been greatly reduced through the introduction of severe penalties, including confiscation of trucks, equipment and weapons.

Annual income from wildlife rose from US$600 000 in 1966 to $10 million in 1973, a significant figure in a country which has a per caput income of $138 and a gross national product of $87.5 million (1971 estimate).

Land use

Wildlife management and utilization as they affect land use are also dealt with by the Natural Resources Technical Committee, on which sit senior officers of all the ministries concerned with land-use questions. This committee was created to ensure coordination and consultation on major land-use issues and to advise the executive branch of government.

Hunting regulations

Hunting regulations in Botswana are complicated, as they have to take into account different groups of hunters and, in particular, the needs of those people who have always made use of game. Thus, inexpensive and liberal hunting licences are available for the latter, while nonresident tourist hunters are naturally required to purchase relatively expensive licences.

The regulations cover nonresident hunters, hunters living in the country on freehold farms, hunters residing on tribal land, those living on state land, and nomadic hunters such as the Bushmen. Bushmen have the most liberal regulations. They are restricted only in that they may not hunt in national parks or game reserves (with the exception of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, which is their main territory), and that they may not kill protected or conserved species. All others wishing to hunt in Botswana must take out some sort of licence which stipulates the number of each species they may kill.

There are 40 Controlled Hunting Area (CHAS), covering most of Botswana. Not classified as CHAS are the national parks, game reserves, the southeast, northeast and Kgatleng districts, and the freehold farming areas. Fifteen CHAS are currently leased to safari companies on an annual basis, while the other 25 are normally open for general booking to all residents and visiting hunters. The leasing fees differ considerably, based on the category of hunters utilizing the CHAS, as well as their game characteristics and the number and species of game which they are estimated to contain. For example, lions in the Kalahari areas are larger than in the rest of the country. Game estimates are made partly from hunter and game warden reports and partly from aerial surveys.

Booking fees for CHAS are paid weekly at a rate of R10 (US$15) and above for residents of Botswana and R50 ($74) for nonresidents. No more than six sport hunters are allowed on a single CHA at one time. Residents on state land and tribesmen are fully exempt from paying fees when hunting on the CHA where they reside.

After procuring a CHA permit the hunter has the choice of licences, offering him a variety of animals at varying costs. In addition, he can take out supplementary licences for a number of species. Residents of state and tribal lands have special privileges in their own areas; their licences are nominal and they can shoot up to 28 head of game, depending on the area and the species.

The law requires hunters to endorse each kill and to return their licence and CHA permit to the nearest Department of Wildlife and National Parks Office at the completion of each trip. These returns provide very useful information concerning the economic aspects of each species. They also show the degree of success of various kinds of hunters in different seasons, for different areas and species of animal (von Richter and Butynski, 1973). The systematic reporting of hunters' information is also valuable for gathering data of biological significance, such as game population and movement trends, certain aspects of animal behaviour, and variety and distribution of species.

TABLE 1. - RECREATIONAL AND TRADITIONAL HUNTING IN BOTSWANA (1972)

Type of hunting	Revenue	Animals sold by licence	Animals shot	Number of hunters	Revenue per animal shot	Number of animals shot per hunter	Hunter success
	Rands				Rands		Percent
Tribal¹	5 337	96 300	37 240	3 428	0.14	10.86	39
State land¹	3 826	22 375	8 030	1 287	0.48	6.24	36
Recreational	375 224	19 253	5 822	1 099	64.45	5.30	30
Total	384 387	137 928	51 092	5 814

¹Figures extrapolated from incomplete data.

TABLE 2. - SUMMARY FIGURES FOR RECREATIONAL HUNTING IN BOTSWANA, 1965-73: ESTIMATED REVENUE, LICENCES SOLD DEGREE OF HUNTER SUCCESS

Year	Total revenue from hunting	Number of hunters	Revenue per hunter	Revenue per animal shot	Number of animals sold to hunter	Number of animals shot per hunter	Hunter success
	Rands		Rands				Percent
1965	73 836	300	246.12	-	-	-	-
1966	67 078	439	152.80	-	-	-	-
1967	64 590	538	120.06	-	16.14	-	-
1968	158 415	614	258.00	42.64	18.92	6.05	32
1969	216 503	929	233.04	35.96	18.00	6.48	36
1970	286 725	1 024	280.00	40.58	18.65	6.90	37
1971	325 600	879	370.44	63.33	16.69	5.81	35
1972	375 224	1 099	341.42	64.45	17.53	5.30	30
1973	312 000	868	359.45	63.63	14.11	5.65	40

The reporting and analytical methods in Botswana are unique among the wildlife services of developing countries, and they could serve as a model for use elsewhere.

Every CHA has a quota for the number of animals of each species which may be taken. Quotas for state land CHAS are allocated by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, while tribal land quotas are set by the Department in consultation with district councils. Hunting seasons vary in length from area to area, the longest being from 15 March to 15 November.

The preparation and sale of trophies - horns, tusks and skins - are now important income producers (von Richter, 1969). Trophy dealers are licensed, required to keep accurate day-to-day records, and must submit full reports every two months to the Department of Wildlife and National Parks. These records show that a total of 12 000 skins in 1967 brought in R47 000 ($69 000) while in 1973 the total number of skins had risen to 52 000 and were worth R465 000 ($688 000).

A study of the growth of trophy sales in recent years gives some valuable and disquieting insights into current trends.

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), today on the endangered list and totally protected in Botswana, brought R8 ($11.85) per skin in 1965. Between 1964 and 1967 some 200 skins left the country and by 1967 the price for a quality skin was R20 ($29.60).

In the past, widespread subsistence hunting probably did no appreciable harm to the wildlife population. But subsistence hunting is tending to turn into trophy hunting for cash. The dramatic increase in prices for skins in the last decade has led to a dangerous and excessive commercialization of wildlife.

Simple and inexpensive housing is adequate and attractive for visiting hunters and tourists. The tented tourist camp and the game lodge are operated in different areas by safari companies. Such companies contribute considerably to Botswana's revenue from wildlife.

Poaching across borders, formerly carried out by well-equipped groups on an organized commercial scale, in particular from South Africa, is no longer such a serious problem. Severe penalties, including confiscation of trucks, equipment and weapons, have been particularly effective against this kind of poaching.

Heavy duties have been put on all exports of raw, unprocessed game products. This has had the effect of creating employment in the countryside, keeping profits within the country and encouraging local processing of wildlife products. One of these is biltong - air-dried strips of game meat - which is popular throughout southern Africa.

Recreational and subsistence hunting are at present the major sources of income from wildlife utilization (Tables 1 and 2). In 1973 the central Government earned R244 680 ($362 126) and local governments R67 320 ($99 634) from the sale of hunting licences and CHA permits. In 1973 a questionnaire addressed to sports hunters (returned by 16 percent of the hunters who received it) indicated that all hunters in this category spent approximately R1.1 million ($1.6 million) in Botswana during 1973, excluding fees for licences and CHA permits. On the basis of this it can be concluded that the total spent by visiting sports hunters was no less than R1.5 million ($2.2 million).

However, such heavy reliance on recreational hunting for revenue is being viewed by the Government with some concern, and the present policy is to diversify wildlife utilization and proportionately to reduce that part derived directly from hunting.

Regulations concerning nonresident hunters are also in the process of becoming restrictive, due to a combination of sociological and political considerations. In all probability the number of visiting hunters will be limited. In 1974, as a temporary measure in that direction, the only nonresidents allowed to hunt were those who did so through safari companies. This, in effect, reduced the number of hunters from South Africa, who, for the most part, were accustomed to making their own arrangements and leasing CHAS on an individual basis. However, the flow of overseas hunters-mainly from North America and Europe - has not been affected as they normally book through the safari companies, and thereby contribute considerably more to the country's hunting revenue (van Richter and Butynski, 1973). The expansion of safari companies, however, is limited by the availability of rare trophy animals. Lions (Panthera leo), sable (Hippotragus niger), roan (Hippotragus equines), and eland (taurotragus oryx) are the animals most sought by the overseas clients of these professional outffiters.

HUNTING LICENCE FOR TRIBESMEN

With this licence, which costs 1 rand, tribesmen in Botswana identify the species and number of game they may kill. The names of the animals are also shown on the licence in Tswana, the principal Bantu language in Botswana.

Unlike the overseas hunters, those from South Africa are more interested in meat for biltong than in trophies. They tend to hunt animals such as hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), impala (Aepycerus melampus), springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and buffalo (Syncerus caffer).

High game value

Tribesmen hunting with traditional means account for about 90 percent of the game animals killed each year (Table 3). As can be seen from Table 4, the value of this kill in terms of food and cash income in a subsistence economy is substantial. A conservative estimate of R2.3 million ($3.4 million) per year for game meat was arrived at solely by assigning an arbitrary value of R0.15 ($0.22) per pound to calculations derived from all available data. This includes species whose skins have little or no commercial value, such as hare (Lepus spp.) and springhare (Pedetes capensis) for which Butynski (1973) values the meat at well over R1.1 million ($1.6 million) annually. In addition, the skins of hartebeest, wildebeest, buffalo, duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), steenbok (Raphicerus campestris) and impala do not find their way to the trophy dealers since they are frequently retained for domestic use.

Most of the meat eaten in Botswana, in fact, is game. The proportion of wild to domestic animal meat in people's diets varies within the country. For instance, all the meat eaten by Bushmen is game, while cattle-raising tribesmen may get about 80 percent of their meat from wildlife and 20 percent from their livestock. People living in or close to villages tend to eat a higher proportion of meat from cattle, goats and sheep, but their main supply still comes from game animals.

Experience in Botswana and many other countries shows that hunting, if strictly controlled, has no detrimental effects on wildlife populations. It is the encroachment on the wildlife habitat by other forms of land use which constitutes the principal danger to the habitat, and therefore to all the creatures which depend on it for life, including, in the final analysis, man.

TABLE 3. - TRIBAL HUNTING IN BOTSWANA, 1972

Species	Number sold by licence	Number killed	Cost animal sold
			Rands
Buffalo	656	420	4.00
Elephant	230	190	19.56
Lechwe	21	20	2.00
Gemsbok	190	150	3.36
Kudu	126	100	3.56
Leopard	43	30	15.00
Lion	61	40	13.77
Ostrich	1 419	523	0.13
Sitatunga	3	2	1.50
Reedbuck	6	4	1.00
Duiker	8 124	1 381	0.02
Hartebeest	5 330	2 132	0.03
Impala	25 453	10 181	0.02
Springbok	9 929	1 986	0.02
Steenbok	8 758	1 839	0.02
Tsessebe	30	25	2.00
Warthog	18 757	9 352	0.02
Wildebeest	16 345	8 172	0.06
Zebra	681	592	10.00
Eland	132	95	7.61
Sable	6	6	7.00
Total	96 300	37 240

TABLE 4. - REVENUE FROM WILDLIFE IN BOTSWANA, 1972

Direct revenue
	Rands
Export duty on game trophies	57 000
Hunting licence and concession fees	294 000
Park entrance fees	11 500
Sale of ivory and trophies	28 000
Total central Government revenue	390 500
District Council revenue	86 898
Total direct revenue	477 398
Indirect revenue
Value of game meat obtained from subsistence and licensed hunting, at 15 cents per pound	2 360 000
Export value of game trophies sold as a result of licensed hunting	730 000
Estimated expenditure by recreational hunters, mainly in foreign exchange, other than that for licences and controlled hunting area permits	900 000
Estimated expenditure by nonhunting tourists to see and photograph wildlife	450 000
Value of skins retained for domestic use	300 000
Estimated expenditure by safari companies. Game lodge owners and trophy dealers	658 000
Total indirect revenue	5 398 000
Total wildlife revenue	5 875 398

The most suitable areas for livestock in Botswana have been occupied by man and grazed by cattle for 150 years, with devastating results. The pressure for more cattle grazing is now being put on marginal lands. These fragile ecosystems can support wildlife permanently and can sometimes even become upgraded when reserved for wildlife. But the intrusion of wells and cattle on land of this nature invariably downgrades it irreversibly into desert. Fencing, competition with cattle for food and water, and the general degradation of the habitat, especially brush encroachment and denudation, result in the disappearance of the wildlife, and eventually of the cattle and the people as well.

Until recently there was no firm government policy to prevent the spread of human activities. The Department of Wildlife pointed out repeatedly the instability of the Kalahari environment, and the Government has now introduced legislation to prevent uncontrolled expansion of cattle into the sparse marginal lands of that large area of the country.

The answer to the dilemma of land use is that realistic efforts have to be made to reconcile various interests within the country to arrive at land-use plans which reflect the limitations of the environment, and to institute land-use practices which are consistent with the overall long-term interests of the country. It is not an easy problem for the Government to solve, even when, as in Botswana, the will to deal with it is there.

References

BUTYNSKI, T.M. 1973. Life history and economic value of the springhare (Pedetes capensis) in Botswana. Botswana Notes and Records, 5:209-213.

CAMPBELL, A.C. 1972. Traditional utilization of wildlife in the Kalahari. Botswana Notes and Records, Special ea., 1:108-113.

CAMPBELL, A.C. 1973. The National Park and reserve system in Botswana. Biol. Conserv., 5:7-14.

CAMPBELL, A.C. & VON RICHTER, W. Planning and policy making: wildlife conservation in Botswana. Johannesburg, South African Institute of International Affairs. (In press)

CHILD, G. 1970. Wildlife utilization and manage merit in Botswana. Biol. Conserv., 3:18-22.

VON RICHTER, W. 1969. Report to the Government of Botswana on the survey of the wild animal hide and skin industry. Rome, FAO. UNDP Report TA 2637. 51 p.

VON RICHTER, W. & BUTYNSKI, T. A review and evaluation of hunter returns as a source of administrative and biological data. Symposium on Wildlife Management and Utilization in Africa. (In press)

VON RICHTER, W. & BUTYNSKI, T. 1973. Hunting in Botswana. Botswana Notes and Records, 5:191-208.