FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS (FAO)

GOVERNMENT OF THE THE REPUBLIC OF NAMIBIA

FAO-NETHERLANDS PARTNERSHIP PROGRAMME SUPPORT TO
SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT IN LOW FOREST COVER COUNTRIES

By
Ibrahima Thomas, International Consultant (FAO) and
Moses Chakanga, National Consultant (Namibia)
Windhoek, Namibia, 24 April- 21 May 2002

FOREWORD

According to FRA 2000³⁰, 71 countries, most developing, have a forest cover of less than 10 % of their land area. The open-ended International Expert Meeting on Special Needs and Requirements of Developing Low Forest Cover Countries (LFCCs) and Unique Types of Forests, held in Teheran in October 1999, agreed to prepare proposals to secure international support to sustainable forest management in LFCCs. The Netherlands approved support to targeted outputs and activities as a follow up to the “Teheran Process”. Country studies for Africa and the Near East regions were selected to outline the causes and effects of deforestation and degradation together with lessons learned and priority needs to enhance the role of planted trees. The Republic of Namibia, as one of the country case studies selected, is detailed in this report.

OVERVIEW AND COUNTRY CONTEXT

Brief geographical description

Located in the south-western part of Africa, Namibia covers a total land area of about 830,000 km² sharing boundaries with Angola and Zambia in the North, Zimbabwe at the eastern end of the Caprivi strip, Botswana in the East, South Africa in the South and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean in the west for about 1,600 km. It covers nearly 3 percent of the total land area of Africa but accounts for only 0.2 percent of the whole African population.

Government and administration

The Government of the Republic of Namibia was officially recognized as a new, independent nation on 21 March 1990. The Namibian Constitution, unanimously adopted by the 72-member Constituent Assembly on 9 February 1990, lays down the division of powers between the legislature, the executive and the independent judiciary. Seventy-two members (elected for a 5-year term) of the National Assembly, and members (two from each geographical region) of the National Council, form the Namibian bicameral legislature. The executive branch of Government is headed by the President, elected by direct popular vote for a term of 5 years. The Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister assists the President. The judicial power, “subject only to the Constitution and the law”, is shared by a Supreme Court, a High Court and a number of Magistrate and Lower Courts.

Policy and legal framework

The Government of Namibia has globally acknowledged the urgent need to conserve ecosystems and species within the country through Article 95:I of the Namibian Constitution that explicitly incorporates that the State shall “adopt policies aimed at maintaining ecosystems, ecological processes and biodiversity for the benefits of present and future generations”.

The National Planning Commission is the main institution responsible for planning national development in Namibia. The National Development Plan II of Namibia 2000-2005 took into account the strategic objective and proposed actions for development of the forestry sector.

Environmental considerations

The features of the Republic of Namibia are

Geology and soils: The complex geology of Namibia can be summarized as follows:

• Namib Desert: an 80 to 100 km-wide geo-ecological zone parallel to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and bounded eastwards by the Namib escarpment that covers 16 % of the country’s land area and receives less than 100-mm annual rainfall;
• Namib escarpment: a narrow transition zone between the desert and the central highland plateau, characterized by a highly variable topography with many ephemeral rivers and mountains;
• Central plateau: extends the full length of the country from north to south where most rivers in Namibia have their major watersheds. The north western Central Plateau presents a rugged topography with broad valleys and inselbergs whereas the South is a flat stony plateau with few deep valleys; and
• Kalahari sandveld: east of the Central Plateau is characterized by deep sandy soils on top of bedrock and flat topography. The soils are mainly thick red layers, except in the North where they are brittle alkaline, and in the northwest where the sandveld forms low, undulating dunes and shallow ephemeral river valleys.

Climate: Namibia’s climate is characterized by the scarcity, extreme variability, and unpredictability of annual rainfall, usually from November to April (summer). Temperatures in Namibia vary greatly from well over 50⁰ C and under 0⁰ C being recorded; daily fluctuations are greatest in the zones with lesser vegetative cover, and, on the contrary, vary little along the coast and in the northeast. Namibia has the second driest climate in Africa only to the Sahara.

Biological resources (habitats, species and biodiversity): Even though Namibia is one of the world’s driest countries, it is a nation of impressive, often unique habitats and species. The dense and rich forests of the north give way to open and low formations in the centre, while they are rare, fragile and scattered in the south. There are 5,500 species and sub-species of flora, 20 of which are endemic, 240 rare and 103 very rare. Fauna includes 75 species of reptiles, batrachians and fish, 45 of which are endangered (26 mammals, 10 reptiles and 9 amphibians). The freshwater ecosystems have a high ecological, economic and social value. The ocean and coastal environments are among the worlds’ most productive because of the Bengali Current system. These ecosystems face threats from habitat alteration through agriculture, human settlement, over-fishing, over-grazing, pollution from offshore oil exploration, industrial development and diamond mining.

Land resources: Although rainfall varies from below 50 mm in the south-west (coastal desert) to 700 mm in the North and north-eastern (semi-humid regions), Namibia produces a considerable amount of woody biomass from its three main vegetation types: deserts, savannas and woodlands that occupy 16 percent, 64 percent and 20 percent of the land, respectively. Most of the woody biomass is found in the savannas areas. Land use is: agriculture 52 percent; open communal land 32 percent; State protected nature areas 12 percent; restricted for mining 3 percent; and tourism 1 percent. Agricultural production has been mainly practised on the communal areas with very little irrigation along the northern rivers. Little investments, has been done to promote arid land agriculture in parts of Namibia. The main constraints for this lack of investment can be attributed to the scarcity of fresh water, lack of secure land tenure and the prohibitive costs associated with the exploitation of saline fossil ground water sources. The current land bill that promotes the use of communal title deeds as collateral for joint credit loan could enable the development of agricultural projects in horticulture, and livestock production in Northern Namibia.

Water resources: The availability of water in Namibia dictates the patterns of human settlement and migration and also of occurrence of fauna and flora throughout the country for it is undoubtedly the country’s most limited and, ultimately, limiting natural resource. There are very few perennial rivers variably flowing in the northern (Kunene, Zambezi) and southern (Orange) borders. During the rainy season, there is much ephemeral surface water that is briefly available in some areas of the country where ground water tables have dropped, specifically in the central and western regions. Fossil ground water is widely exploited and, in general, groundwater sources are limited in quantity as well as quality (high salinity and thus unusable for irrigation and human consumption).

Population, demography and employment: Namibia has a present population of 1.8 million. About 60% of the population lives in the northern part of the country, where rainfall exceeds 400 mm/year and the majority live in 30 percent of the country land area. Twenty-eight percent of the population are urban. The Namibian population is young with more than 42 % under age 15, with a yearly growth rate of 2.6 percent between 1991 and 2001, and a mean fertility of 6.1 children per woman. The agriculture sector provides 37 percent of total employment, and the wholesale and retail trade sector provides only 8 percent. An average annual employment increase of 22 percent is estimated over the period 1999-2006, at the same rate as population growth.

Economic situation and consumption patterns: Agriculture (accounting for about 40 percent of GDP in the early 1990s) and mining (about 11-25 percent) are the most important sectors in Namibia, which also has important commercial marine fisheries, subsistence inland fisheries and tourism activities. The national economy depends on both imported goods (food, manufactured products, and technology), and exports (minerals, beef and fish). The subsistence agricultural sector contributes only 1.5 percent of GDP, but is essential to the livelihood of about 70 percent of the population.

Gender equality: In 1998 the Namibian Government developed its National Gender Policy to achieve effective partnership towards gender equity in the country. This legal framework was followed by the development of a National Gender Plan of Action that seeks to promote gender equality through empowering woman in information, law and policy reform, and equal participation in the political, economic, social and cultural development of the nation.

Food security: There is widespread under-nutrition among children under five years. Over 66 percent of the population suffer from disorders caused by moderate to severe iodine deficiencies. The Government is addressing these issues through the Food Security and Nutrition Development Programme.

Energy: Liquid fuels, electricity and coal account for 82 percent of energy consumption, of which petroleum fuels account for 70 percent. Traditional wood, charcoal and dung account for only 18 percent, even though they are the main energy source for 60 percent of the population. Mining and fishing are energy intensive industries that account for the high energy-consumption ratios. Subsistence consumption of fuelwood is estimated at 520,000 tons/year and commercial consumption at 153,000 tons/year. For rural people, fuelwood will remain the principal source of energy. Because of the high rate of population growth the demand for fuelwood is anticipated to increase.

CURRENT STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF FORESTS

National forest inventory and information systems

Information on forests and other woody biomass vegetation types is very limited. However, the recently formed Directorate of Forestry (DoF) works in cooperation with the Namibia-Finland Forestry Programme to manage and perform scientific research for necessary data and information on forestry management activities. Namibia’s vegetative cover includes: deserts 16 percent; savannas 64 percent; and woodlands 20 percent. Only woodlands areas in the northern and north-eastern parts of the country are considered as forest areas.

Deforestation

In 1995, forests covered 12.4 million ha and during the period 1990-1995, the estimated annual loss of forest cover was 42,000 ha giving an annual rate of deforestation of 0.3 % (FAO, 1997), comparable to the information from the Ohangwena region in Northern Namibia where, using satellite images and aerial photography, forest cover change has been estimated to be around 0.5% between 1981 and 1992.

Characteristics of the Namibian national forest

Natural forests: The natural vegetation consists of semi-closed woodlands and several variants of acacia-dominated savannas. The highest forests are found along the rivers in the north-eastern parts of Namibia and mopane woodlands in wetter Eastern Caprivi.

The four northern regions where forest inventory work has been completed are:

• Caprivi region: This region covers 2,009,527 ha in the north, most eastern part of the country and is classified as “Tree Savanna and Woodland” vegetative zone. Soils are sandy and landforms consist of dunes, dune valleys. Forests cover 1,632,743 ha and savanna 15,216 ha, but about 5 percent of the forest category and 18 percent of the savannah are extensively cultivated. The whole area has an average of 87 trees per hectare (total number of trees is 142,798,780) and a mean volume of 21 m³ /ha. The two main commercial saw timber species are Pterocarpus angolensis and Baikiaea plurijuga, the former of which has been overexploited;
• Oshikoto Region: This region covers 2,656,523 ha divided into commercial farms (957,049 ha) and communal lands (1,699,474 ha, of which 53,073 ha are grasslands and oshanas. Mean number of trees per hectare is 129, with mean volume of 12 m³/ha. There is no forest industry in the region and the wooded areas provide fuelwood, poles and non-forest products including fodder;
• Oshana Region: This region, situated in the north central part of the country, covers about 510,000 ha but has the highest population density in Namibia with 25 inhabitants /km². With a flat topography, and predominant sandy soils, the Oshana region has a relatively poor drainage system. Average rainfall varies from 180 mm in the southern part of the region to 710 mm in its more populated northern part. Eighty percent of the area investigated has little or no woody vegetation. The reasons for this lack of forests or woodlands in this region include deforestation due to over-harvesting and poor soil conditions that prevent the woody vegetation from developing into tree size; and
• Omusati Region: Situated to the west of the Oshana region covers 1.39 million hectares and has an annual rainfall ranging from 350 mm to 500 mm. The topography of the region consists of an extremely flat plain, except in its western most part. For the whole region, there is an average 33 trees/ha, total tree volume amounts to 4,449,500 m³ and mean volume per unit area is 3 m³/ha.

Planted forests: There has been very limited development of planted forests (300 ha) due to a lack of available land, harsh climatic conditions and poor soil properties. The former colonial rulers favoured ranching in these conditions. Plantations of Eucalyptus in Kavango region have demonstrated poor growth and yield. However, the Development of Forestry Policy for Namibia and the Forests Act, 2001 advocate tree planting, primarily through agroforestry systems in meeting rural peoples’ needs and to support their livelihoods. A lack of research, training and demonstration has hampered development. A target of 10,000 ha of plantations and woodlots for construction poles, fencing materials and indigenous fruits is proposed by 2020.

Trees outside forests: The importance of trees outside forests is highlighted in the Forests Act, 2001 and the Nature Conservation Ordinance Amendment Act, 1997. Both forbid wilful destruction of trees and other woody vegetation on agricultural lands. Customary laws also forbid destruction of fruit trees and penalties are imposed in traditional courts if breached. Trees outside forests mainly occur on agricultural fields within human settlements and trees present in scattered formations in savannas and arid zones. Most Namibians live in the north where they have traditionally converted woodlands, savanna, and strips of riverine lands into cultivation fields and pastures. A wide range of species are grown, each with specific values such as those producing fruits, oil nuts, medicinal products, or the ones conserving or enhancing soil fertility, and shade trees are often left in agricultural fields as sources of raw material for crafting or medicinal products. There are also trees planted in community forestry activities. The main “systems” of trees outside forests in Namibia are:

• Homestead plantings, which consist mainly of shade and fruit trees, which have high value to warrant their intensive care, especially in the years of establishment when scarce water has to be spared for their tending;
• Farm woodlots, which the Department of Forests is currently promoting among individual farmers and community groups;
• Live fencing, which exists traditionally but is not as widespread compared to the use of wooden pickets, palisades and thorn bush types of fences to protect crop fields; and
• Urban forestry, which includes trees in parks, public gardens, and along roadsides, and are the responsibility of the Municipal Affairs.

Environmental values of forests: Forest areas and woodlands of Namibia contribute to the fight against desertification by preventing soil losses due to wind and water erosion. These forested areas play a very important role in maintaining water quality and in protection of watercourses. By also providing habitats for many plant and animal species, these natural ecosystems contribute to the conservation of the country’s rich biological diversity. In some areas, woodlands are sanctuaries for traditional worshippers and also participate in enhancing scenic beauty of rural landscapes, in mitigating climate or in regulating air pollution in urban centres.

Preservation of biodiversity: The Department of Forests is a key member of the National Biological Diversity Task Force along with all the Directorates in charge of Parks, Wildlife, Environmental Affairs, and the National Botanical Research Institute. Each of these institutions has a biological plan of action in its national programme. The Department of Forestry contributes to the conservation of biological diversity by establishing community-based forest reserves and by creating key forest types that are not currently in the nationally recognized protected area network. The targeted goal is to increase the combined size of protected areas that is now 8% to about 10% of the total land area.

Initiatives toward Sustainable Forest Management

The Department of Forests has adopted several tools from the sustainable forest management toolbox, including:

Criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management: In October 1999, the Department of Forests with the Namibia-Finland Forestry Programme developed a set for Criteria and Indicators for monitoring and evaluating progress towards sustainable forest management. The framework used was an adaptation of that used for countries of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADEC). These were classified according to criteria and indicators for forest resources, environmental values and socio-economic benefits. The framework has been defined, but the challenge is now to ensure that forest and woodland managers apply these in the field.

Strategic planning: Forestry activities are planned and implemented by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) and Department of Forestry (DoF). The Department of Forestry derived the first Forestry Strategic Plan for Namibia, 1996 as the long term planning framework for the forestry sector. The MET also handles wildlife, environment and tourism, which complement the operational activities of the forestry sector with a wider mandate for sustainable natural resource management.

Management plans: Management plans are necessary to detail medium-term plans for defined geographic areas, to be managed for specific purposes. Management plans should detail the forest resource, institution (public or private), socio-economic aspects of the rural communities and environmental contexts, and plan operations and sustainable developments tailored to suit these covenants.

Participatory approaches: The DoF has recognized the importance of adopting participatory planning approaches to understand the needs and aspirations of rural populations who equally have a desire to live in harmony with their natural and planted forest resources. Finland, Germany and Denmark have provided external assistance to support the Government to strengthen capacity and capability in this process.

Codes of forest management and harvesting practice: These are regulated by the Namibian Forestry Strategic Plan of 1996 and the Forest Act of 2001. Harvesting of woody forest products is controlled through a permits system from the DoF. To date there is no legislation on harvesting of non-wood forest products (NWFPs).

Certification: Charcoal, marula oil (from kernels of Sclerocarya birrea) and ground roots of devil’s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens) for medicinal purposes have been certified through the Forestry Stewardship Council for export to Europe and the USA.

Forest production

In 1996, the DoF estimated total economic value of forest resources as N $1,058.2 million.

Wood products: Consumption of industrial wood (fibreboard, plywood, sawn wood, veneer sheets and pulp) has increased between 1995 and 1998. This is due to construction booms after independence. However, the Government seeks ways to reduce its high import bill from the SADC region.

Fuelwood and charcoal: Most fuelwood and charcoal production comes from savanna and woodland supply. Despite a permit system to harvest, transport and market wood, an estimated 50 percent is still harvested illegally. The total (including charcoal production) commercial consumption of fuelwood is about 152,864 tons per year; subsistence consumption in rural and urban areas is about 519,467 per year. Namibians do not use much charcoal (supplied by the Acacia) compared to other Africans. Yearly production of charcoal is around 12,000 tons, which are mainly exported to Germany, United Kingdom, South Africa.

Non-wood forest products (NWFPs): In Namibia, NWFPs traded in informal and formal markets include fruits and their by-products (wines, liqueurs, nuts and oil), Mopane worms, grass, NWFPs (such as marula oils for food and cosmetic and devil’s claw for medicine) have gained access in the international market arena. Further, NWFPs of plant origin can be classified into three major groups: food products, medicinal plants and leaves for weaving and decorating. Ecotourism is is a rapidly expanding market. Over 500,000 tourists visited in 1998, with a growth rate estimated at 20%/year.

FOREST SECTOR

The institutional framework

Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) The MET is the umbrella Ministry responsible for forestry in Namibia and includes four Directorates: Forestry; Environmental Affairs; Parks and Wildlife Management; and Tourism.

Directorate of Forestry (DoF): The main duties of DoF are:

• Develop and implement appropriate policies, legislation and strategies for the forestry sector to achieve sustainable management of all types of forests and woodlands;
• Monitor and assess resources, conduct research, and control over utilisation, processing and trade; and
• Conservation for national and global benefits.

Notable achievements of DoF have been:

• National Forestry Strategic Plan in 1996, the main instrument of policy implementation and the basis for donor support to the sector;
• Adoption of an operational planning system, which develops mid-term strategic objectives, defines, on an annual basis, major result areas and sets targets that are used to manage the performance of individual staff, starting from the Director to District Forest Officers; and
• Development of a Management Information System consisting of six priority systems dealing with forest permits (3), management reporting, forest inventory, and human resource development.

Until 1987, all forest activities planned and organized by the forestry frameworks were implemented by the State. Since then, the tendency has been to encourage private companies to invest in forest developments. Forest management studies are carried out primarily by national and international educational institutes. The General Director of Forestry and the forestry districts supervise inventories, study and approve management plans, carry out tree marking operations prior to forest exploitation, and implement management plans.

Other institutions: Other institutions responsible indirectly for different aspects of forestry include:

• The National Botanical Research Institute (herbarium);
• Directorate of Environmental Affairs (Environmental Impact Assessments);
• The Ministry of Trade and Industry (forest products import and exports); and
• Various NGOs such as CRIAA, DRFN, DAPP.

Cross-sectoral links: The following cross-sectoral linkages exist:

• Ministry of Finance determines the amount of financial resources allocated to the Directorate of Forestry for implementation of public forestry programmes;
• National Planning Commission is responsible for the preparation of development budgets and co-ordination of the international community support towards national development efforts;
• Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Rural Development executes specific programmes that have agroforestry components, and has a training extension service; and
• Ministry of Lands, Resettlements and Rehabilitation is responsible for the implementation of the proposed Land Use and Environment Board, Land Boards and Land Tenure.

Forestry research

The DoF is the institution responsible for forestry research and is seconded in the achievement of its mission by the National Botanical Research Institute, the Desert Research Foundation of Namibia, and the Department of Agriculture of Polytechnic of Namibia.

The Research Division within the Directorate of Forestry has an insufficient number of trained and experienced staff and limited information on past research activities carried out during the German occupancy and during the South African Mandate Period. Its activities include:

• Creating and commissioning a national research and tree seed centre in 1997 at Okahandja, with offices also created in Otjiwarongo, Gobabis, Keetmanshoop and Opuwo;
• Current work on projects on mopane woodland management and marula provenance trials; and
• Planned research activities on the selection and genetic improvement of chosen indigenous fruits trees, and on long-term monitoring of forests using permanent sample plots – pending funding support.

Forestry training

The DoF has made noticeable efforts in human resource development by funding training for its staff members either to the MSc or to the BSc level, in addition to the diploma or technician level training. Six staff members have successfully completed their MSc programme and are currently working at the DoF which envisions that, by the year 2005, 70% of all professional posts and 100% of all technical posts will be filled by appropriately trained Namibians.

Forest industries sector

There are 88 forest-based industries in trade and utilization of forest products in sawmilling, furniture and fixtures, and pulp and paper. However, the forest resources of Namibia are insufficient to support large scaled industries, so the larger scaled sawmilling and pulp and paper depend upon imported raw materials. Smaller scaled mobile sawmilling units and cottage-based industries are more suited to the conditions prevailing. More focus is needed in training artisans and marketing access to assist the smaller units. The Government wish to promote a formal wood industry based upon wood and non-wood forest products that will contribute more significantly to the economy.

Legislative framework

Forest Act, 2001: The legal framework is encapsulated in the Forest Act, 2001 which deals with management issues, the need to plant trees where necessary in Namibia in order to conserve, protect soil and water, and to enhance the natural environment.

Other legal and regulatory instruments: In 1994, Namibia’s Government initiated a National Programme to Combat Desertification (NAPCD), and three years later, ratified the Convention to Combat Desertification in 1997. NAPCD aims to combat the process of desertification by promoting the sustainable and equitable development of natural resources. The main objectives of this programme are to:

• Establish mechanisms to collect and analyse information regarding desertification issues;
• Identify key players and improve their capacity;
• Develop integrated planning strategies at all levels on the basis of clearly defined policies;
• Implement appropriate interdisciplinary research programmes;
• Provide appropriate training and education according to needs at all levels; and
• Empower natural resource users and managers to plan and implement sustainable management practices.

Planning framework for forestry

Centralized planning: The DoF is the administration solely responsible for planning and policy decisions, development planning pertaining to the forestry sector. However, the Government has developed the following three major policy changes aimed to correct this centralist model of natural resource administration:

• New communal land bill that has provisions for regional land boards and regional land use plans, and that also recognizes the right of rural associations to seek investment credit by using a communal title as collateral;
• Forest and Wildlife Laws that allow local institutions to manage community forest reserves and wildlife conservancies, with resource tenure or usufruct rights on the basis of agreed arrangements with central or a regional or local government; and
• Policy of decentralization, under implementation by the Ministry of Regional, Local Government and Housing. Regional and Local Governments will be in control of the planning, management and revenues of forest resources in their localities. The Central Government will remain responsible for policy and supervision of its implementation, for law enforcement, and for co-ordinating forestry development planning at the national level.

Forestry Strategic Plan of 1996: This was the first comprehensive post-independence strategic document elaborated in Namibia and is the major instrument to date used in implementing policy and is also the basis of donor support to the sector. The strategic plan has four programme areas namely, Institutional Capacity Building, Community Level Management of Natural Forests, Farm Forestry and Environmental Forestry.

Namibia’s Forest policy puts an emphasis on poverty alleviation measures designed to relieve pressure on the environment. The goals of this strategy include:

• Intensifying agricultural production (crop and livestock) through innovative land-use strategies that hold the possibilities of increasing farm productivity and incomes;
• Developing small and medium manufacturing enterprises based on wood and non-wood forest raw materials;
• Conserving the wildlife habitat as the base service for development of tourism industry; and
• Developing a sustainable rural economy that the country is capable of supporting indefinitely.

The four basic aims of the forest policy flowing directly from the poverty reduction strategy are to:

• Reconcile rural development with biodiversity conservation by empowering farmers and local communities to manage forest resources on a sustainable basis;
• Increase the yield of benefits of the national woodlands growing stock through research and development, application of silvicultural practices, and protection and promotion of requisite economic support projects;
• Create favourable conditions to attract investment in small and medium industry based on wood and non-wood forest raw materials; and
• Implement innovative land use strategies, including multiple use conservation areas, protected areas, agroforestry and a variety of other approaches designed to yield forestry global benefits.

International conventions

With regard to International Environmental Treaties, Namibia, which joined the United Nations as an independent state only in 1990, is already a signatory to, or ratified major environmental treaties or conventions including:

• Conventions on Climate Change and on Biodiversity at the Rio Earth Summit;
• Subscription to the principles of UNICODE and proposed actions of the IPF and IFF processes;
• Control of the Trade in Endangered Species (CITES);
• Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer in 1993;
• Wetlands Convention in 1995; and
• Convention to Combat Desertification in 1997.

External assistance and cooperation

External assistance and cooperation in the forestry sector include:

• Finland in the Namibia Forestry Programme which ensures institutional development, participatory integrated forest management and information and planning;
• Germany which provides assistance through the NGO German Development Service–GDS/DED and SADC/GTZ, to two Community Forestry Projects in the preservation and sustainable use of the natural forests by empowering them to secure their forests against illegal exploitation and to derive benefits directly;
• Denmark initiatives to address unsustainable land management practices and focus on interaction among people, livestock and the natural environment; and
• FAO, USAID, SIDA, INCD Secretariat and the World Bank, at the international level, provide financial assistance and technical support to Namibia’s National Programme to Combat Desertification.

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION AND DEGRADATION

Indirect causes

Land tenure and user rights: There are about 6,500 freehold commercial farming units averaging 5,800 ha per holding that occupy around 45 percent of the land in the Central Plateau Region. The majority of the remaining Namibian population (60 to 70 percent) lives on 25 percent of the country land area, in communal lands situated in the North. This large concentration of people in a rather small portion of the country land areas has put a huge pressure on natural resources. This is more so in forested areas where lands have been cleared for homestead and farm establishment, wood harvesting for rural domestic purposes (cooking, construction, heating, lighting) and for urban demand (building, fuel, carvings), frequent bush fires, and to a lesser extent, overstocking.

Land redistribution in Namibia is an important issue with a strong racial dimension and there is an urgent need to promote some form of land redistribution in order to make agricultural development more equitable. This will need a new land use legislation to end the ongoing principle of “willing seller-willing buyer”, and to equitably apportion “property” rights.

Water tenure and use rights: The dry climate in Namibia leads to severe water shortages in many parts of the country for often long periods of the year. There is no documented information linking scarcity of water in Namibia to deforestation and land degradation.

Poverty: The issues of poverty and food security are the driving forces of many activities leading to deforestation and land degradation. The Namibian Government is engaged in promoting enabling policy environments that reach out to the people in rural areas and has taken steps towards solving this crucial human aspect of the environment. Important aspects of poverty include:

• Unchecked population growth and limited environmental resources leading to acute shortages of fuelwood and building materials;
• Rural predominance of subsistence living and heavy dependence on the forest and woodland resources for survival, particularly during economic hardship; and
• Legal and customary and regulatory instruments have been introduced to address poverty issues including the National Programme to Combat Desertification.

Direct causes

Direct causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Namibia include natural causes and the ones related to human activities.

Natural causes: It is very difficult to identify natural causes of deforestation and land degradation in Namibia, characterized by an arid climate exacerbated by low and erratic rainfall. The inter-annual variations in rainfall may lead, in the case of prolonged drought periods, to the decline of some vegetative cover in the most vulnerable environments.

Causes linked to human activity: Misuse of natural resources: The major factors involved in the mismanagement of natural resources in Namibia include:

• Rapidly growing human population; and
• Socio-economic factors, especially poverty.

The concentration, for too long, of many people and livestock has led to overgrazing, deforestation and land degradation, mainly in the northern parts of Namibia. In most of these rural areas, woodland resources are exploited well above their regenerative capabilities. Likewise, rangelands are used without any consideration of their carrying capacity.

Man-made causes

The main man-made causes include:

• Forest/veld fires destroy large areas every year. In 2001, 5 million ha were burned in the country with 66 percent of this area situated in the Caprivi, Kavango, Otjozondjupa and Omaheke regions;
• Cross border fires with Angola, Zambia and Botswana are also a major concern;
• Land abandonment in Namibia is not common, however, inadequate agricultural practices can lead to extreme depletion of land fertility, and the subsequent temporary abandonment of cropping areas can lead to loss of woody vegetative cover through its conversion to agricultural fields; and
• Infrastructure construction, including dams to generate hydroelectric power, unregulated creation of artificial water, new residential developments, particularly around urban areas.

Effects of deforestation and forest degradation

The main effects of deforestation and forest degradation are the yearly loss of productive land, the loss of NWFPs along with income they used to generate. These losses accentuate or create poverty, which promotes further desertification. This seemingly cyclical aspect of desertification has raised awareness among natural resources managers that deeply consider the poverty alleviation issue and to the implication of all stakeholders, especially local grassroots populations in the combat against deforestation.

It is very difficult to quantify the effects of deforestation in Namibia since it lacks of a national figure about the rate of deforestation; the only available estimate provides a 5 % annual decrease in forest cover change.

STATUS OF KNOWLEDGE

Lessons learned

Namibia can look back on a decade of new interventions and testing of various approaches to community-based natural resource management, rural development, small and medium enterprises (SME) promotion, conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, all ultimately adding up to the struggle against deforestation and desertification. The major lesson learned is that all these issues relate ultimately to livelihood security and poverty alleviation.

Other key lessons learned in the sector include:

• Forest and management techniques developed, demonstrated and documented;
• Need for quality education and training of personnel to impart knowledge and technology;
• Need for sound and consistent policy, legislation and planning promoting partnerships, participatory and integrated approaches and to encompass wider land-use management issues; and
• Any form of rural development must consider making the best use of the existing traditional knowledge and know-how.

Initiatives recognized as being valuable in sustainable management of forests and woodlands include:

• Development and refinement of people centred approaches and methodologies;
• Development of well-targeted training and information materials;
• Creation of true opportunities at the grass-roots level;
• Facilitation of communication, information exchange;
• Strengthening of the collaboration and support amongst all stakeholders; and
• Elaboration of enabling policy environments that reach out to the people in rural areas.

Gaps in knowledge

The pending issues inadequately understood, but recognized as important in sustainable forest management, include:

• Extent and consequences of desertification not only on forest and woodlands but on people, communities, livelihoods and economic and environmental development;
• Need to combine traditional knowledge and experience with scientific knowledge, technical and formal managerial skills;
• Elaboration of new approaches for initiating full participation/partnership in rural community and smallholder development;
• Establishment of networks of decentralized statistical planning databases; and
• Development of communication supports for awareness-raising about environmental degradation and desertification.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions

The conclusions of the mission are summarized as follows:

Development choices: Namibian forestry is strongly focused on conservation of existing forest resources and other woody vegetation through sustainable management practices. There is also a strong policy for development of agroforestry and urban forestry.

Institutional, policy and legal frame: The conclusions are:

• Namibia has supportive policies and legislation in forestry and wildlife, in view of current global policies and conventions but would gain from more efficient, partly decentralized administration;
• The adoption of global policies in the forest sector will mean that the sector will be sensitive and also contribute to the conservation of biological diversity, mitigation of climate change and will be regularly assessed using the concept of criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management;
• Even though the area under forests will decrease, better land use planning at the regional and local levels will produce a legally recognized forest state that will be more immune to unplanned conversions to non-forest uses, as is the case today. In other words, forest reserves of various classes will be part of the protected area network in Namibia; and
• The government is pursuing a policy of attracting private sector investment in product processing and convincing donors to be actively involved in value-added industries.

Natural resources use and management: The conclusions are:

• In the absence of a strong traditional forest industry, Namibia should adopt new technologies for processing of its wood and non-wood products. It should develop the area of reconstituted wood products, the use of lesser-known tree species, new products from non-wood raw materials and its cottage industries based on limited local resources;
• Non-wood forest products need systematic development for sustainable use locally. Furthermore, some products like Marula and Devils Claw have international markets and therefore need proper management to benefit the local people;
• At the moment the dry environment limits the development of large-scale forest plantations. Low precipitation and unsuited soils hinder the establishment of fast-growing indigenous species. At present there are few woodlots of exotic species in the country, which indicate that there is some potential for further development in this area. Some exotic species, such as Prosopis, grow very well in some parts of Namibia where there are no trees at all and as a result provide shade, fodder and firewood; and
• There are many opportunities for the Namibian forest sector to develop creative investments in processing and taking advantage of new niche-market specialized products and the growing tourism industry as a market for value-added products.

Recommended actions

Non-wood forest products: In Namibia, there is a great need for data on NWFPs used by local communities but not well accounted for in the national economy. There is an urgent need to promote such NWFPs that have been neglected so far. Recommendations include:

• Determine the nutrition content of many veld foods and health related issues with regard to local beverages from NWPFs;
• Document more information on the NWFP, especially the traditional knowledge of rural people; and
• Continue the on-going efforts on research activities pertaining to the determination of appropriate harvest methods for sustainable management of medicinal plants.

Trees outside forests: There is a need to develop simple but analytically valid methods for the collection of information on TOF, such as on-farm trees in communal areas, woody vegetation and on commercial areas. There is also a need to provide extension and support services to reflect local priority needs and aspirations.

Afforestation and reforestation: The Forestry Development Policy, and Forest Act, 2001 advocate planted forests and trees outside forests. However, on the ground afforestation and reforestation programmes are in their infancy. Despite the harsh and dry environment, which hampers tree-planting activities in Namibia, there is nevertheless a high potential. Recommendations include:

• Establish plantations to meet local peoples’ needs for fuelwood, fodder and construction poles;
• Conduct trials in plantation development, especially tree planting techniques on sand dune stabilization, and planting activities including community-based tree nurseries;
• Collaborate and exchange information with other countries having similar dry environment to share lessons learned;
• Promote conservation of indigenous species;
• Set aside land on resettlement farms acquired by government for tree planting purposes; and
• Develop cooperation between the MET and the municipalities to promote urban tree planting.

Forest management planning

Recommendations include:

• Develop management plans for all forms of forest land-use and ownership;
• Establish participatory mechanisms to enable people to benefit from conservation and management of all types of woody vegetation and
• Enhance and control, monitoring and reporting on the conservation, and utilization of forest and woody resources.

Training

Continue capacity building in forest management through both short- and long-term training programmes, and development of more human resource capacity, especially forest extension workers.

Forest research

Initiate research to provide scientific data for decision making for forest management and for more efficient charcoal making.

Urban forestry

Develop cooperation between the MET and the municipalities to promote urban tree planting.

Ecosystems

Promote conservation of strategic/important forest areas.

Charcoal production

Recommendations include:

• Prepare guidelines on Wood utilization in the other land use area, such as charcoal production taking into account the protection of the woody resources;
• Assist communal farmers to participate in charcoal production through the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) to control “bush thickening”; and
• Conduct research into efficient charcoal making methods from bush encroachment species. For example, development of efficient retorts currently underway.

Forestry sector contribution to national economy

Recommendations include:

• Assess the value of revenues raised by the forestry sector to determine the financial contribution of the forestry sector in the national economy; and
• Account for, and analyze revenues from wildlife sector since forests and other woody vegetation provide important habitat to game.

Food Security

Recommendations include:

• Support current policies to improve food security and diversify rural incomes through careful assessment of natural resource availability and the issues of their sustainable use; and
• Promote indigenous foods and products for value-added production, to stimulate interest in use and assessment of indigenous fruit-tree resources.

³⁰ Forest Resources Assessment.