9. FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

9.1 The protected forests estate

The protected Zambezi teak forest reserves of western Zimbabwe provide timber, grazing resources, agricultural land and wildlife. From the inception of forestry in this region it was realised that individually any of the multiple components of the forests would give a low economic return in relation to land area. Complementing each other the components would provide an entirely different picture and considerably increase the socio-economic potential of the forest reserves. On the other hand it was apparent that there was bound to be conflict in the management of timber, wildlife and a resident forest population that was engaged in livestock and crop production. None of these entities could be managed in isolation; therefore, this factor had to be taken into consideration in management plans. Compromises can be made without losing sight of the fact that timber was of paramount importance.

The protected KS teak forest estate is made up of 21 individual forest reserves. Each reserve was surveyed after proclamation and is clearly protected by a network of external fireguards that are regularly cleared of woody vegetation to keep them visible. Most of the individual forest reserves have common boundaries with communal areas, resettlement areas, large and small-scale commercial farms and national parks. For easy planning and control of forest management silvicultural prescriptions each forest is divided into blocks or compartments ranging in size from 5 to 10 000 ha.

The overall administrative responsibility for the management of the protected KS teak forests rests with the Chief Executive Officer of the FC, with the assistance of the Divisional Manager, Conservation and Extension. In the western region where the forests are located the administration, control and supervision of management activities lie with the Chief Conservator of Forests, under whom are 11 technical foresters, a forest ecologist, a wildlife ecologist, a forest protection officer and personnel involved in the maintenance of field vehicles and equipment. Arrangements for the administration and management of these forests are shown in Table 2 below.

Table 2: Forest management staff for the protected forest reserves

(Source: Forestry Commission, 2006; ¹The two forests are managed by one forester)

9.2 Forest management approaches

The management approach of the KS teak forests may be categorised into five levels. The general characteristics of the approaches have been:

(i) conservation with limited use;

(ii) protectionist and exclusionary;

(iii) focus on timber and wildlife management;

(iv) application of the multiple use concept; and

(v) gradual move recently towards people-focused forest management.

The FC’s obligations under the Forest Act include the management of four principal components of the KS teak forests. The components are timber, wildlife, people and grazing. Real organised management of the forests was not realised until 1920 when a Forest Officer was posted to work in the western region. The Forest Officer proposed the following management conditions that were subsequently adopted and implemented:

(i) minimum dbh limit of 40 cm;

(ii) normal safeguards for good exploitation such as drawing debris away from living trees;

(iii) restricting felling to poorly stocked stands;

(iv) fire protection of the whole and not part of the concession area;

(v) spot sowing of not less than 40 ha of the principal tree species; and

(vi) regular patrolling of the forests during the dry season.

In 1961 the Conservator of Forests elaborated far-reaching ‘Objects of management and research’ most of which have guided management of the protected KS teak forests to this day. The areas focused on included exploitation and enumeration, silviculture, fire protection, research, multiple land use and the exploitation of minor forest produce, finance and economics and administration and integration with other forms of land use.

9.3 Forest management plans

Currently the management of the protected KS teak forests is regulated through forest management prescriptions of properly authorised management plans, which are based on the principle of sustained yield. The absence of such management plans had previously imposed limitations on all aspects of management, protection, exploitation and administration of the forests. To this effect specific management plans for each protected forest were first produced in 1992 and are revised every five years. The management plans are used for strategic and annual operational work plans of the forests. Production of the management plans is the responsibility of forest officers with supervision from their co-ordinators and the Chief Conservator of Forests. All management plans are based on qualitative and quantitative data and information gathered by respective foresters for each forest reserve. In forest reserves where forest inventories have been conducted the management plans are based on inventory results data and information.

The forest management plans are prepared on two levels, i.e. the level of the whole forest and the community forestry level. The latter case involves situations where co-management arrangements exist and production of the plans is facilitated by foresters with the full participation of community members. In the former case, production is the responsibility of foresters at the forest reserve level. In both cases the management plans are approved first at the divisional level and secondly at institutional level, where the plans have to fit into strategic goals of the institution. According to plan production procedures the management plans shall contain the following generic chapters:

Chapter I General background (history, size and location, physiography)

Chapter II Forest resources

Chapter III Forest utilisation

Chapter IV Forest management

Chapter V Management zones

Chapter VI Fire plan

Chapter VII Forest improvement

Chapter VIII Administration

9.4 Management activities

Management activities in the forests include:

(i) forest fire protection;

(ii) supervision of forest utilisation programmes;

(iii) veldt management;

(iv) research support on indigenous forests;

(v) wildlife management;

(vi) silviculture;

(vii) anti-poaching activities; and

(viii) community participation.

These activities are elaborated below. They are carried out under the supervision of the respective foresters of each forest reserve. Each forester has a small team of permanent workers that is complemented by casual workers during the fire season.

9.4.1 Forest fire protection

Early foresters observed that fires damaged a large percentage of trees in these forests. Much of the harvested timber shows serious fire-related faults and blemishes. While complete fire protection has proved unsuccessful, early burning was abandoned in the 1970s and currently the major fire protection activities are manning of fire lookouts and fire fighting.

The first attempts at protecting protected forests from fire were instituted in 1925 and concentrated in areas exploited by timber concessionaires. The first annual fire plan was aimed at the protection of all young growth using natural features such as vleis, rivers, streams and timber extraction lines. In his 1925 annual report some observations on fire damage to Kalahari Sand forests, Kelly Edwards attributed the causes of fire to superstition and the traditional practice of annual burns to improve grazing and honey hunting, particularly during times of hunger. Farmers caused forest fires during agricultural land preparation activities. Fires were also lit to flush game and fires were made to please the rain gods particularly when drought threatened. European hunters were also careless about fire. Two hunters, Lundin and Herbst, were the biggest culprits when they operated on the Ngamo flats capturing giraffe for zoos. They boasted about the fires they started deliberately or campfires they left un-extinguished (Judge, 1975). Locomotives on the Bulawayo-Victoria Falls railway line caused a number of fires. Lightning also started some fires.

Annually, local staff in each forest attends to numerous veldt fires. Protection of the forests from the effects of fire is the function of the territorial staff. The biodiversity of the forests changes drastically as a result of fires. Fires, therefore, remain the single largest threat to the growth and development of the forests. Fire protection procedures are the subject of the detailed forest management prescriptions of annual and periodic fire protection plans. In the plans it is recognised that to exclude all fire indefinitely is not practicable. The fire protection plans set out clearly the objectives to be achieved. The management of fire is based on the occurrence of different vegetation types, as well as an understanding of their different responses to fire. Fire plans are prepared based on the division of the forest into 4 000 ha blocks surrounded by burned fireguards. Fire plans cater for the specific protection of the most valuable and perhaps the most susceptible area. As the success of fire protection work partly depends on the sympathy of local communities living adjacent to the protected forests, propaganda and educational campaigns are of prime importance. The objective of the propaganda and campaigns is to make the local communities conscious of their dependence on the forests as a source of livelihood.

In an attempt to reduce the impact of fire in protected forests the following fire control measures are prescribed:

a) Controlled burning of fireguards and, around selected areas of productive forest, beating out the fire.

b) Maintenance of fire lines by disking or hand scuffling.

c) For permanent control, the construction of a network of fire lines to be kept clean of vegetation and patrolled.

d) Manning of fire lookout points for observation and communication.

From the early days it was recognised that the KS teak forests appeared to have developed under much less fire risk than that obtaining at present. There was a need to find cheaper means of protecting the forests from fire. Complete protection was considered too costly and far from practicable. Early burning alternating with complete protection in regeneration areas seemed to hold some promise. It was proposed that the most promising and effective way to keep out damaging fire was by controlled grazing. Cattle grazing is still practised today using livestock from forest residents, forest-adjacent communities and commercial grazing leases.

Between 1931 and 1970 extensive early burning in the dry season was practised with the objective of protecting clumps of good young teak growth. Although early burning was initially considered a success, damage to the forest was inevitable and the degree of damage depended on forest conditions at the time of burning. However, early burning was considered essential to supplement the fireguard system. Timing was important if desired results were to be realised. The objective was to reduce fuel levels and therefore minimise the occurrence of devastating late dry season fires. From the time early burning was introduced, concern was raised over its long-tern effect on the forests. It was noted and agreed that it was an extremely difficult operation to time and implement over large forest areas (Judge, 1975). In addition, severe damage to seedlings and pole stage stems was found in early burned forests. Early burning was considered an extremely difficult operation. The fires were either too intense or had no effect. More often than not the fires went out of control. As a result Project E46 was started in 1954/55 in Gwaai forest to understand better the effects of burning at various times of the year. In 1959 doubts were expressed as to the effectiveness of early burning and the decision was made to confine early burning to known hot spot areas and to concentrate controlled burning on a network of fireguards, harrowed traces and fire lines. Because of these problems early burning was abandoned in 1970.

The early 1960s saw the beginning of the present-day system of fire protection that is centred on early detection, quick reaction and suppression. Success of the system is based on availability of fire towers, communication radios and telephones, efficient road networks and well equipped and highly trained fire-fighting gangs. During this time fire towers were constructed and equipped with compass roses and sighting devices and linked to offices by internal telephones. Tractors were made available for harrowing fire traces and fire lines. Radios are used for communication between fire towers, forest reserve offices and land vehicles. Currently there are fire towers in Bembesi, Gwaai, Umgusa, Gwampa, Fuller, Panda Masuie, Inseze, Ngamo, Sijarira and Sikumi forests.

Fire protection measures in timber concession areas, commercial grazing areas and areas leased for safari operations involve the inclusion of fire protection clauses in the agreements. Concessionaires are required to remove slash to a distance of two meters from any living stem of a commercial timber species. The concessionaires and lessees are responsible for the fire protection of the forests in which they operate. Three main clauses in the agreements with respect to fire protection are that all fires lit by concession in the field have to be put out after use and workers are responsible for fighting and putting out fires that occur in their areas. Workers in concession and leased areas are supposed to help forest managers put out fires anywhere in the forests. To be effective, the FC supervises these conditions.

9.4.2 Timber exploitation

Timber exploitation for commercial purposes has been based on the principle of sustained yield, which is determined in two ways, i.e. through the minimum diameter allowed for harvesting and the cutting cycle. The objective of prescribing a minimum felling diameter is to ensure that the remaining trees grow to harvestable sizes over the cutting cycle period. Only trees of prescribed minimum diameter and above are harvested, and then only if these trees have not been marked for seed production. While this opens the canopy layer to allow regeneration and growth of suppressed trees, the system ensures that at no one time is the forest cover completely removed. In effect, therefore, the dynamics and functioning of the forests continue under minimum disturbance. The exploitation of major forest produce (timber and wildlife) is conducted by the private agencies operating under agreement or licences that are subject to periodic reviews in respect of changes in royalty rates, species and sizes that concessionaires are obliged to take.

Since 1904 timber harvesting has concentrated mainly on three commercial species, Baikiaea plurijuga (Zambezi teak), Pterocarpus angolensis (blood wood/mukwa/kiaat) and Guibortia coleosperma (mchibi) for railway sleepers, furniture and flooring (Judge, 1975). The selection logging system is the main method used in the management of timber production in the forests. The general aim of the selection system is to remove mature and over-mature trees so as to give the residual stock adequate growth resources. The system is supposed to result in stand improvement with a view to bringing the forest to a condition suitable for sustained yield. Under the system the ideal forest stand is described in terms of the number of stems of different species per hectare distributed over a range of diameter classes with the objective of maintaining a mixture of species and a balanced representation of the diameter classes.

The initial logging activities that started in 1904 involved wanton, indiscriminate and unsystematic harvesting practices (Judge, 1975; Calvert, 1986). In 1935, a licensing system was instituted that served to control logging through the felling of marked stems only. A working plan developed in 1966 treated the protected forests on a cutting cycle of approximately 60 years. In the initial cutting cycle, all over-mature trees of commercial species over 35 cm dbh, mature trees not required as seed trees or for the maintenance of canopy cover and diseased trees were liquidated (Judge, 1975). The minimum diameter limit was the only means of regulating yield and the situation has remained the same to this day. The demands of the timber industry have naturally led to the progressive reduction of the minimum utilisable diameters from the initial limits to the current average of 31 cm dbh for all commercial species.

The timber harvesting plans for the protected indigenous forests are based on a sixty-year cutting cycle. The first cutting cycle that covered most of the forests ran from as early as 1910 through to 1970. Effectively a harvested forest or forest block is not returned to earlier than sixty years. This gives the remaining trees time to grow to harvestable size. Currently the forests are going through the second cutting cycle that began in 1971. The second cycle started in the forest that was first logged in 1910. By following the sequence all the forests would have been logged by 2030 after which harvesting goes into the third cutting cycle. Only those forests or forest blocks that are due for cutting are those that should be logged. Divergence from this schedule is taken only after serious consideration of prevailing circumstances pertaining to the specific forest or forest block. For example, some forests have their schedules brought forward when it is considered that incidences of poaching would result in the decimation of the commercial species or where there is a high prevalence of tree diseases such as the mukwa dieback that kills stems of P. angolensis.

All timber harvesting operations in the protected forests are conducted in a transparent process. Firstly, forest inventory officers assess areas ready for harvesting to establish timber quantity and the feasibility of commercial timber harvesting operations. Once this condition has been met, tenders are invited through the public media facilities and also electronically

Once a tender has been awarded to the winning bidder, an environmental impact assessment (EIA) precedes all harvesting operations. The EIA aims at establishing all possible impacts of the timber harvesting operation and recommends ways of mitigating these impacts. The EIA is reviewed and approved by the Department of Natural Resources in the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Timber harvesting proceeds only after approval of the EIA.

The FC reviews and, if satisfied, approves cutting plans submitted by the timber concessionaire. Among the key attributes of a successful cutting plan are proof of inventories conducted, minimum allowable diameters to harvest and volumes allowed to be harvested over the cutting period, and proof of adequate vehicles and equipment. A monitoring mechanism is put in place and is conducted by FC officers. The mechanism is aimed at controlling the species harvested, minimum harvestable diameter to harvest and allowable volumes to be harvested. In addition a checklist for pre- and post-harvesting inspection is mandatory. Further, annual audits are carried out to ascertain if timber harvesting operations are following the Timber Harvesting Policy (Gonah, 1994) and the Code of Timber Harvesting Practice (Forestry Commission, 2006).

A timber concession is a contractual agreement between the FC and an individual or group of people to harvest timber from a delimited forest area. The current maximum allowable period for a concession is five years. The timber harvesting agreement is renewed annually. The timber concession system in Zimbabwe originated in 1935. There is therefore considerable experience in concession procedures such as resource inventories, determination of sustainable yield, preparation of cutting plans, handling of concession process, policing and monitoring. A legal framework regulates timber concession procedures.

9.4.3 Wildlife management

One of the programmes that has added significant value to the protected KS teak forests of western Zimbabwe is wildlife management. The FC’s ability to bring water and at times artificial feed (in times of drought) into the forests has resulted in greater numbers of almost all Zimbabwean wildlife species becoming residents in the protected forests. Through this programme, the FC’s Ngamo Safaris prides itself on being one of the biggest safari operators in the country. This programme is of immense economic value to the FC, the local communities and the country.

When the Forestry Division was created in 1930 pioneers of the Division recommended that wildlife in the protected forests should enjoy game reserve status and complete protection. It was recognised that wildlife had to play an important role in the multiple land use concept of the protected forests, particularly in the tourism sector.

Wildlife management activities are grouped under the following management objectives: (i) to maintain a diversity of wildlife populations, paying close attention to the environmental requirements of the species concerned; (ii) to manage wildlife on a sustained yield basis for recreational purposes; (iii) to cull populations that show tendencies to build up beyond habitat limits; and (iv) to co-ordinate wildlife management with timber, agriculture and livestock grazing management.

9.4.4 Wildlife management in Zimbabwe

During the early 1950s there were moves to investigate the economic potential of wildlife in Zimbabwe. This led to three students from America being awarded Fulbright Research Grants in Zimbabwe. Thane Riney, one of the students, produced a working plan for wildlife management after spending much of his time in Hwange National Park. During this time Guy, the then Conservator of Forests in Matabeleland, invited Riney to visit Gwaai and Gwampa forest reserves to assess the wildlife situation. Other recipients of the Fulbright Research Grant were Mossman and Dasman who visited the lowveld in 1959 to study the wildlife situation there (Judge, 1975). The researchers recommended that the best approach to wildlife management in the areas they had visited was for landowners to economically manage the game on their property. Today the management of wildlife on different land categories is in line with these recommendations.

9.4.5 Wildlife management in protected forests

After the forest reserves were gazetted wildlife was protected from illegal hunting. Anti-poaching operations and the reduction of predators were the main management activities. In 1966 active game management was introduced in Gwaai, Bembesi, Ngamo, Sikumi, Gwampa, Fuller, Kazuma, Panda Masuie and Sijarira forest reserves. The management practices included provision of pumped water, anti-poaching, control of predators, and prevision of salt licks, population census, determination of quota and translocation and introductions. Although control of predators such as lions and wild dogs was undertaken in the early days, at present it is considered a desirable biological force. These activities are still being practised today.

The objective of water provision is to ensure favourable distribution and survival of wildlife populations. Anti-poaching activities are necessitated by the fact that forest inhabitants and communities living adjacent to the forests often hunt game for subsistence and they are generally considered a threat to sustainable management of wildlife in the absence of some arrangements that make them custodians of wildlife and beneficiaries of wildlife-related enterprises. A large portion of the annual budget was spent on anti-poaching activities.

For successful wildlife management in the protected forests a number of areas are targeted. These areas include:

• Annual game censuses that involve taking stock of existing populations. Combinations of methods are used to obtain reasonable estimates of species populations. The methods include 24-hour waterhole counts, spoor counts, walking strip counts, aerial counts, daily forest guard observations and hunting reports. An analysis of the census data provides essential information on the present status of the wildlife species populations and facilitates prediction of trends in composition and structure of these populations.

• Studies of the characteristics of various species including mating habits, sex/age ratios, breeding age, number of young at birth, feeding and roosting ranges, mobility, migration, saturation point, carrying capacity, habitat requirements, food preferences, water requirements and diseases.

9.4.6 Wildlife-related development in protected forests

Certain forests have been developed for eco-tourism purposes either by the FC or by private safari operators. The forests developed by the FC have largely involved wildlife introductions and the provision of game water points in Gwaai, Bembesi, Ngamo, Sikumi, Fuller, Pandamasuie and Kazuma forests. This development also included the construction of hunting camps in Gwaai, Ngamo, Kazuma, Fuller and Sijarira forests; the construction of photographic camps in Fuller and Sikumi forests; and the construction of airstrips in Gwaai, Gwampa, Sijarira and Ngamo forests. The FC has also constructed a small-boat harbour on the banks of the Zambezi River in Sijarira forest. This infrastructure is in line with the organisation’s emphasis on wildlife-based income-generating programmes in order to boost financial resources required for the management of the forests. These programmes complement timber harvesting activities for the same purpose.

Issues related to wildlife management in the protected forests are the responsibility of the wildlife ecologist with assistance from territorial staff.

9.4.7 Forest inventory

The exploitation of forests is plagued by destructive harvesting, over-exploitation and a basic disregard for the functional ecology of the plant populations and communities. One of the essential ingredients required for sustainable forestry is information. This information generally includes the density and distribution of resources in a forest, the population structure and productivity of the resources, and the ecological impact of harvesting levels and quantities of timber and non-timber products. This information can only be obtained through quantitative and qualitative forest inventories.

It is the responsibility of the FC’s Mapping and Inventory Unit to conduct inventories in collaboration with the forest ecologist with assistance from territorial staff. In addition it was the duty of all territorial staff to add to the forestry records data and information pertaining to botany and vegetation types

Historically forest inventories were mainly focused on commercial timber species. In the last two decades the inventories have taken on board non-timber forest products. A combination of methods is used including field surveys and interpretation of aerial photographs and satellite imagery, ground proofing, the inventory proper and mapping. Information on the forest resources is gathered all at once, thus rendering the practice cost effective in terms of human, financial and material resources. Sometimes unscheduled inventories are conducted when circumstances demand that a concession be awarded in a forest before the scheduled harvesting period. As an ongoing regular practice, timber inventories have been conducted in Fuller, Mzolo, Gwaai, Bembesi, Inseze, Inseze Extension, Lake Alice, Umgusa, Sikumi and Ngamo forests. These inventories assist in refining management plans as new information and data on the current status of the forest resources is gathered. The information also assists in planning for forest resources utilisation programmes.

Staff involved in planning and conducting forest inventories have requisite skills in cartography, aerial photography and photogrammetry, statistical analyses, data capture and processing, mensuration techniques and the management of inventory resources, i.e. finances, manpower and equipment. Information acquired from inventories is used over a period of several years and hence errors during inventories may be costly in terms of accuracy and incompleteness.

The first known forest inventory in western Zimbabwe was done using the viree method. For a 5 percent enumeration, a base line was laid out and viree pegs put at 400 m intervals. On each viree, which was at right angles to the base line, every tree of Baikiaea plurijuga, Pterocarpus angolensis and Guibourtia coleosperma was measured for diameter. Each 200 m was marked off to represent a 0.5 ha plot. All trees that were 35 cm dbh over bark and over were recorded in 6 cm classes. Class I trees were 35 cm dbh and above, class II trees were 27cm to 33 cm dbh over bark, Class III were 19 to 25 cm, Class IV were 11 to 17 cm and Class V were 3 to 9 cm dbh over bark.

In each 0.5 ha plot the following were also recorded: the height of the commercial species to the nearest 1 metre; common shrubs in order of frequency and their approximate density; grasses and herbs and their approximate density, grazing intensity and soils and their colours and regeneration per species. The designs of the sampling units have changed from the viree transects to circular plots while the parameters and variables measured and recorded have remained almost the same.

Forest inventories are carried out as prescribed in the procedures manual (Kwesha and Mkosana, 1992). The manual states the steps to be followed in preparing and conducting an inventory.

9.4.8 Forest research activities

The early studies and research activities in the KS teak forests concentrated on the description of their vegetation types and structure (Judge, 1975; Calvert, 1986). The main objectives were to deepen knowledge on the original structures of the forests and on the commercial products that they contained. At the same time a considerable number of permanent sampling plots were established and have been measured continuously until today. The plots were intended to gain knowledge in order to improve silvicultural methods. In the recent past an ecosystem-oriented approach has received considerable attention in forest research in protected forests. A typical characteristic of this method is the interdisciplinary approach involving social, economic, ecological and institutional aspects. Some of the research areas since early days include vegetation studies including phenology and autoecology, pests and diseases, grazing by cattle, effects of logging, regeneration surveys, review of timber properties, germination requirements of indigenous tree species, soil types, growth studies, root morphology and wildlife ecology. Several of the studies were concluded while others are ongoing and the results obtained have been valuable in the management of protected forests.

The Forest Research Centre at the FC’s headquarters in Harare is staffed with researchers of various disciplines including tree breeders, silviculturists, entomologists, pathologists, sociologists and economists. These specialists have the responsibility of assisting forest managers in the protected KS forests in conducting relevant research. They also collaborate with the forest ecologist and wildlife ecologist in the western region.

9.4.9 Silviculture

From the early days of forest management it was recognised and noted that the silviculture of the indigenous forests was closely linked to incidences of fires, commercial and subsistence harvesting, wildlife and land husbandry activities of the forest occupants. These are considered important factors controlling the establishment and growth of forest vegetation. Depending on their intensities and frequencies these controlling factors can either improve or hinder the development of forest vegetation. Knowledge of the silviculture of the indigenous forests and their component species is still being improved on.

Most of the silvicultural work in the protected KS teak forests involves attempts at understanding the effects of silvicultural treatments on stand and individual tree growth; methods of and requirements for natural regeneration; impacts of pests and diseases on tree growth; responses of woody species to varying intensities and frequencies of grazing, browsing, fire and exploitation; methods of artificial regeneration including nursery techniques; effects of the removal of competing vegetation on the growth and development of desirable species, and various methods of protecting artificially regenerated woody species (Judge, 1975; Malaya, 1986). Currently, there is a lot of information on these important issues, most of which is largely found in reports and publications of the Forest Research Centre of the FC. Despite the presence of this valuable information, implementation of the study results has been poor due to lack of appropriately trained personnel in the field of indigenous forest silviculture. The studies and implementation of silvicultural prescriptions are the responsibility of the silviculturist-indigenous forests.

Between 1990 and 1998 the project “The ecology and management of indigenous forests in Zimbabwee was co-sponsored by the Zimbabwean and Swedish Governments. The project covered a number of issues related to silviculture including secondary succession in Miombo/Baikiaea woodland, population structure of P. angolensis, artificial regeneration of selected indigenous tree species and thinning and copping trials in C. mopane. A summary of the findings is included under the results section.

9.4.10 Community participation

Forest management programmes must necessarily benefit the local people as well as include their participation. There must be a sense of ownership of nearby forests by local communities. The FC is currently encouraging the involvement of forest-adjacent communities in selected forests to achieve partnership in forest management.

In the early 1990s, the FC recognised that some forest values were being neglected especially the provision of non-timber forest products. In the history of management in protected forests, timber assumed major importance and appeared to be the only significant forest output. For the rural populations the prominence of timber and its products was ill founded. The reality was, and is, that non-timber forest products contribute enormously to the livelihoods of rural people. The FC initiated forest resource sharing programmes in Mafungabusi forest and shared forest management in Gwaai/Bembesi forests with forest-adjacent communities. The purpose of the new approaches to forest management is to improve local peoples’ livelihoods while ensuring that the forests are well conserved. These programmes have formalised access to collectively agreed forest products. These products are consumed directly or are marketed for income generation.

In 2000 and 2004 the FC enunciated policy strategies that would allow local people to participate actively in forest-based income-generating businesses, such as timber logging and photographic safaris, and benefit from a Social Forestry Fund that is earmarked for developmental projects in areas adjacent to protected forests.

A common feature of these arrangements has been negotiations and conflict management between the FC and forest-adjacent communities on aspects of co-management, resource and benefit sharing, establishment and strengthening of local institutions, capacity building and drawing up rules and regulations for the use of mutually agreed forest resources. The processes started with the development of a project proposal by the FC with participation from communities and forest user groups. This was then followed by ecological surveys of the biophysical resources and, finally, implementation. Important responsibilities of communities in these co-management arrangements are the drawing up of consultative forest management plans, regular patrols to check for encroachment or for illegal activities, fire fighting, sanctioning those breaking the rules and regulations and education campaigns. All these activities are carried out in order to ensure the sustained supply of goods and services that the forests render. Most resources are harvested on an individual basis according to rules established in the community forest management plans.

Chapter 19.05 of the Forest Act of 1996 allows national citizens and local communities to harvest forest resources in limited quantities for their own consumption or income generation. In forests where there are no co-management programmes the FC issues simple licences for such purposes. Normally the contracts are short-term. The licences specify the period, type of resource and quantity to be exploited. Examples of such licences are those awarded for thatch grass and firewood harvesting. The licences do not normally require the installation of individual plants for processing the products. In practice, licence holders take no responsibility for the integral management of the forest except for fire protection.

9.4.11 Management of forest occupants

There is considerable land in the forest areas that, although it is integral with the forest, is more suitable for agricultural production than forestry. Such land is found mainly along the valleys where the soils are more varied and heavier in texture. Before the forests were gazetted indigenous African people occupied the valley areas of most of the currently protected forests. After the forests were gazetted the FC’s policy was to incorporate some of the indigenous people as forest tenants on small agricultural units. The plan for the numbers and distribution of the tenants took into account such factors as forest protection and development. As far as the tenant system and agricultural development and management were concerned the forests fell into four groups as follows.

Gwaai Group (Gwaai, Bembesi and Ngamo forests)

Umgusa Group (Umgusa, Umzibani, Inseze, Inseze Extension and Chesa forests)

Gwampa Group (Gwampa, lake Alice and Molo forests)

African Area Group (Mafungabusi and Mzolo forests)

The objectives of the forest tenant system were to:

• create a plan for the optimum use of forest land and agricultural resources for the benefit of the Matabeleland region; utilise the agro-ecological potential of the forest areas taking into account the social and ecological factors and the need to integrate and balance agricultural development with forestry and wildlife management;

• manage the tenant community so that it plays its role in forest protection;

• devise a farming system based on cattle and veldt management that complements the forest enterprise, and allocate arable land to the required number of forest tenants so that the holdings, together with livestock production, would provide tenants with the opportunity to improve their livelihoods;

• establish an Agricultural Unit with trained staff and necessary resources to carry out required agricultural management and extension in forest areas;

• establish and maintain good working relationships between agricultural and forestry staff and other relevant departments and organisations so as to demonstrate the good results of agricultural management in protected forest areas.

It was generally appreciated in the early days of forest management that the KS forests were best suited to indigenous hardwood production together with wildlife management and cattle production. The valley and vlei areas, although located within the productive forest areas, are distinct from the timber production areas and more suited to intensive livestock production supported by small grain production.

It was anticipated that the development of a well organised tenant community in the forest areas would buffer the forests against future outside population pressure while providing a livelihood for a considerable number of tenant families. Thus, the multiple land use concept was considered to have many aspects and repercussions inside and outside the forest areas. The concept was taken as one of holistic forest management that reinforces the mutually supporting attributes of the various forest enterprises and reduces conflicting attributes.

The planned number of tenants for each forest group and their distribution was calculated on the basis of livestock carrying capacity and available arable land. The forest areas were to contain a number of economic agricultural units that would allow acceptable levels of income generation for the number of tenants that was consistent with forest management. Table 3 gives a summary of the Agricultural Plan Data.

Table 3: Summary of Agricultural Plan Data

(Source: Judge, 1975; * L.U. denotes livestock unit equivalent).

During the intensification of the Zimbabwe war of liberation in the western region there was an increased influx of illegal settlers into the protected forests. This resulted in an increase in the population of forest occupants and an increase in illegal activities including opening up of forests for settlement and agriculture and illegal harvesting and collecting of forest products. By the time of Zimbabwe Independence in 1980 the number of forest occupants had risen to unmanageable proportions. At this stage the FC sought to evict all households from the forests including the ex-tenants. The strategy was not successful due to political interference. Evictions were not popular with politicians since the liberation war had been fought under the premise that people would get back land that had been appropriated by the colonial regime, including forest lands. The table below shows the current human and livestock population in affected protected forests.

Table 4: Current numbers of human and livestock population in protected forests

(Source: Forestry Commission, 2004).

Currently the FC controls the human and livestock population through annual censuses and by discouraging new entrants. The Forest Protection Unit regularly patrols the occupied areas in an effort to control and reduce illegal utilisation of forest products. In Gwaai, Bembesi and Gwampa forests households have been relocated in designated areas for proper control and to limit encroachment to core conservation zones. In some of the forests there have been initiatives towards participatory involvement of forest occupants in the management and conservation of local woodland resources. Extension work plays an important role in these initiatives