Antoon de Vos
ANTOON DE VOS is a wildlife biologist who has served on a number of FAO wildlife projects.
A report on its significance in Africa and Latin America
For three million years or more man has been eating wildlife of various kinds. Primitive man harvested a great variety of wild animal foods, as is evidenced by the many species of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish and also invertebrates which are still being collected today by the Kalahari Bushmen and The pygmies of the African tropical forest zone.
Primitive people must have been largely opportunistic in their food habits, although they must have been subject to certain taboos and food preferences as well, which is still true today.
Evidence obtained by anthropologists in various parts of the world indicates that primitive man already had certain preferences in his use of animal protein. For example, Bökönyi (1975) stated that the aurochs was preferred by hunters in the Lengyel culture in west Hungary.
In Africa an amazing variety of wildlife species are eaten, including all wild ungulates, primates, hyraxes (Hyracoidea), rodents, all cats and many species of birds, reptiles and amphibians. A long detailed list of wild mammals, birds and reptiles used as food in Africa was prepared by Jardin (1970). Recent data on the use of wildlife as a source of food in Africa are listed in Table 1. The utilization rate of monkey in west Africa is high, so much so that the continued existence of some of these species is endangered by this practice (Asibey, 1974). Chimpanzees and pigmy-chimpanzees are also eaten in some west African countries. Monkey flesh is often preferred to other meat, as indicated by high prices on local markets. A small monkey carcass (Allenopithecus nigroviridis) cost US$7 at the Kisangani market in Zaire in 1976.
A wide range of animals currently provide edible meat in west Africa (Tables 2 and 3). Among the mammals, rodents and antelope play an important role and among the latter duikers (Cephalophus spp. and Sylyicapra spp.) and bushbuck (Tragelaphus) make an important contribution to the diet. In the past apparently a smaller number of animals was used for the daily human diet, because these people could afford to be more selective in their food habits. Bush babies (Galago spp.) and African hedgehogs (Atelerix spp.) have become important food items only recently.
Virtually all species of wildlife - mammals, birds, reptiles, and invertebrates - serve as sources of wild meat in Ghana, as is the case in many other countries. The most popular are the rodents and certain wild ungulates Rats, cats and dogs may occasionally also "pass" for game (Clottey, 1968).
In some parts of Ghana, as much as 73% of locally produced meat may come from wild animals, particularly from some of the smaller types such as grasscutters (Thryoromys spp.), hares (Lepus spp.) and giant rats (Cricetomys gambianus). The amount of bushmeat purchased in one market in Accra is shown in Table 3.
Detailed recent statistics on the harvest from various sources are available for Botswana (von Richter, 1976): in 1975, 43 187 head of game were sold and 14 530 were shot. Since, with the exception of leopard, lion and ostrich, these are all large to medium-sized ungulates, this represents a vast quantity of meat. In 1971 there were 325 532 head of game, again mainly ungulates shot by safari and non-safari hunters in Botswana.
As already noted, rodents form a significant portion of the total amount of bushmeat consumed, particularly in west Africa. The use of rodents as food in tropical Africa was reviewed by den Hartog and de Vos (1973). However, this use is not always adequately reflected in statistics, as food consumption surveys generally record all foods obtained by hunting or trapping indiscriminately under the heading of "bushmeat" in English or gibier in French. Generally these figures also do not include the small animals which are collected by children. Therefore, the few statistics that are available record minimum figures only.
Rodents may be of greater importance for human consumption in many rural areas than the bigger animals. This is because:
· They generally do not come under the game laws and can therefore be harvested continuously.
· The high turnover rate allows for a high sustained yield without depletion of the populations.
· Rodents are very numerous in relatively densely populated areas where larger animals are scarce.
Among the rodents, two forms are widely consumed, particularly in West Africa: the giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus and Cricetomys emini), and the cane-rat or grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus).
PREPARING SKEWERS OF GAME MEAT AT A ROADSIDE CHOP BAR IN NIGERIA - game is preferred.
Another very valuable rodent is the springhare (Pedetes capensis forster), which is widely distributed throughout southern Africa. This rodent, which may breed continuously and reaches an adult weight of 2.7-3.5 kg (Butynski, 1973) has been the subject of some interesting statistics about its use in Botswana. Butynski estimates that the total number killed by Bushmen is more than 346 000 annually and that the number killed by
Botswana hunters amounts to 2.2 million per year. This represents a total of 2.2 million kg of springhare meat every year, the equivalent to the amount of meat obtainable from 20 000 head of cattle.
Some data obtained on the average daily meat consumption in Nigeria, including rodents, are shown in Table 4. In Table 5 are listed the kinds of rodents that are consumed throughout Africa.
Rodent meat can be purchased in many cities and towns in West Africa. Insofar as can be ascertained, of all African rodents only the grasscutter and the palm squirrel have been analysed for their food composition (Bergeret et al., 1957). No information is available on the biological value (BV) and the net protein utilization (NPU) of rodents. The chemical score of rat meat is in the same range as that of other foods of animal origin (den Hartog and de Vos, 1973).
|
WHEN SCIENTISTS PUT ON BLINDERS One of the ironies of the age is the tendency of scientifically educated people to ignore or reject whatever they cannot measure. Such is the case with the consumption of wildlife of all kinds for food in developing countries. The significance of this resource is largely ignored by nutritionists, animal production experts and even some wildlife biologists because it is difficult to find statistics about the gathering, marketing and consumption of wildlife. In addition, these foods are mostly strange or even repugnant to the majority of specialists who are working so hard to increase food production and human nutrition levels among the peoples of developing countries. The specialists are inclined to think of the improvement of man's lot in terms of passing on what they are familiar with in their own lives, ideas and things which are often foreign, distant and unconnected to the lives of those whom they want to help. This article is by a scientist who thinks differently. His point of departure is that wildlife of all kinds, from maggots and rodents to large game animals, are not only acceptable food but are to varying degrees an important part of the diet of many people throughout the developing world. Furthermore, he observes, wildlife is usually preferred food whenever it is a part of the culture. Why, then, should these resources not be better husbanded and developed? The observations and data refer to Africa and Latin America but a study of the same conditions in Asia would yield similar facts and conclusions. The Editor |
Unfortunately, far less quantitative data on the use of wildlife for human food are available for South America than for Africa, but particularly in the forest zone and to a lesser extent in the savanna zone this is still considerable. Most primitive Indian tribes base their animal protein intake almost exclusively on wildlife, and settler communities also make considerable use of this resource (Smith, 1976).
Amazonian fauna has historically been important as a source of food. Birds, monkeys, turtles, fish, manatee, deer, pace, peccaries, capybara, tapir, sloth, ants and grubs are only some of the animals mentioned in the literature as having been eaten and still used as food in Brazil today.
Smith (1976) assessed the importance of wild meat in the diet of settlers in rain forest and second growth areas along Brazil's Transamazon Highway. He considers his data biased in favour of larger species since settlers are less likely to report smaller game. During a 12-month period in 1973/74 (Table 6), a total of 3 214 kg of game was taken within a 100-km² hunting area of Agrovila Nova Fronteira. Allowing for an average weight loss of 40%, the actual amount of game meat consumed was about 1 929 kg or an estimated 5 grams of protein intake per day. During a similar 12-month period of observation in 1973/74 (Table 8) in the vicinity of Leonardo da Vinci, a total of 3 389 kg was taken, or an estimated 2 033 kg consumed. This supplied about 20% of the protein requirements of the community. A much smaller yield, 761 kg or only 2% of protein requirements, was obtained around Coco Chato because of 15 years of hunting and habitat alteration.
Instead of cropping more abundant mammals, such as rodents and marsupials, settlers in forested areas concentrate on relatively large taxa such as peccary, tapir and bracket deer composing 89% of the game take by weight in the vicinity of Nova Fronteira and Leonardo da Vinci (Tables 6, 8). Only when the larger species become scarce in heavily hunted and modified habitats are rodents significantly represented in the annual kill Thus paces and agoutis account for 39% of the game taken around Coco Chato, where the habitat has been degraded, while rodents account for only 3% of the annual game take by weight in predominantly forested areas. However, rats and mice, a source of food for some aboriginal groups, are not eaten by the colonists.
Wild birds, a minor source of animal protein to colonists in the study areas, account for only 0.6% of the yield by weight in forested areas (Tables 6,8) and 2.6 % in the vicinity of Coco Chato.
FAO (1969) reported that in the Ucayli region of the Amazon fish and wildlife accounted for about 85% of the animal protein consumed by people in rural areas.
The capybara, a giant rodent weighing between 30 and 50 kg, has long been the object of intense exploitation. It occurs in large numbers over extensive areas of South America. In Argentina, capybaras are hunted everywhere for their meat and hides and several ranches in Venezuela raise them commercially.
A comparison of the production efficiency of capybaras and cattle has shown that the former are 3.5 times more efficient than the latter and also six times more efficient than the latter in reproductive performance under conditions prevailing on floodplain savannas. This permits off-take rates of about 40 % without detriment to the productive potential (Gonzáles Jiménez, 1977).
The rodent called "plains viscacha" (Lagostomus maximum) which inhabits warrens in the pampas of Argentina is hunted and consumed as food. The meat of this animal is well liked and can be bought tinned. In Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina along the Andes and their foothills, mountain viscachas (Lagidium viscaccia) are also hunted for food (Walter, 1964).
TABLE 1.- Terrestrial wildlife as a source of food in selected countries of Africa
|
Country |
Food consumption and species concerned |
Source |
|
Botswana |
The estimated consumption of game meat was 60 % per person per annum for the country as a whole and for the Kalahari area 16.4 kg per person per annum. |
VON RICHTER, 1969 |
|
Over 50 species of wild animals, ranging from elephant through ungulates to rodents, bats and small birds provide animal protein exceeding 90.7 kg per person per annum in some areas and contribute some 40% of their diet. |
CHILD, 1970 |
|
|
3.3 million kg of meat from springhare obtained by Botswana hunters. |
BUTYNSKI, 1973 |
|
|
Ethiopia |
Mice and giant rats in the tropical western border area. |
GOVERNMENT QUESTIONNAIRE, 1972 |
|
Ghana |
About 75% of the population depends largely on traditional sources of protein supply, mainly wildlife, including fish, insects, caterpillars, maggots and snails. |
ASIBEY, 1974 |
|
During the period Dec 1968-June 1970 (17 months) a total of 157 809 kg of bushmeat from 13 species of animals was sold in Accra in one market only. |
ASIBEY, 1974 |
|
|
Ivory Coast |
In the northern part of the country 27 grams of bushmeat were consumed per person per day. |
ASIBEY, 1974 |
|
Morocco |
Squirrel and porcupines are eaten. |
DEN HARTOG AND DE VOS, 1973 |
|
Nigeria |
19% of the locally produced food for the year 1965/66 was game consumed in rural areas. |
CHARTER, 1971 |
|
The Isoko tribe (Niger delta) obtain 20 g/day of animal protein, mainly game. |
NICOL, 1953 |
|
|
Game constitutes about 20% of the mean annual consumption of animal protein by people in rural areas. |
AJAYI, 1971 |
|
|
Rhodesia |
Game yielded 5-10% more than the beef industry at a conservative estimate of 2.5 million kg. |
ROTH, 1966 |
|
The Shoama people hunt and consume mice. |
GELFAND, 1971 |
|
|
Senegal |
A minimum consumption rate of 373 631 metric tons of wild mammals and birds per annum for the country's human population of 296 619. |
CREMOUX, 1963 |
|
South Africa |
Thirty-eight species of wild mammals (see Table 8). |
QUINN, 1959 |
|
Sudan |
Rats and field mice are eaten. |
CULWICK, 1950 |
|
Togo |
Various species of wildlife, including rodents, are eaten. The per caput per day intake of rodents varies from 0.5-12 g. |
PÉRISSÉ, 1958 |
|
Zaire |
75% of animal protein comes from wild sources, including mainly three species of Cephalophus and three species of Cercopithecus. Rats and other rodents are also eaten. |
HEYMANS AND MAURICE, 1973 |
|
Zambia |
22% of those interviewed in the Serenji district reported having eaten small animals, including rats, mice and mole rats. |
THOMSON, 1954 |
Wetterberg et al. (1976) obtained the following list of preferred species in Brazil based on personal interviews held with the management of 23 restaurants in Manaus. The first 10 species or groups of related species on the following list were most in demand and freshwater turtle meat was the most popular dish with the general public.
Turtle (Podocnemis expansa, P. unifilis and others)
Paca (Cuniculus paca)
Deer (Mazama sp.)
Tapir (Tapirus terrestris)
Peccary (Tayassu tajacu and Tayassu pecari)
Armadillo (Dasypodidae var.)
Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris)
Wild duck (Anatidae var.)
Agouti (Dasyprocta sp.)
Tortoise (Geochelone sp.)
Boa constrictor (Constrictor constrictor)
Tinamou (Tinamidae var.)
Howler monkey (Alouatta fusea).
Many cultural and religious factors exist in various parts of the world which prevent or inhibit people from using certain species of wildlife. However, these are often put aside by starving and desperate people.
Several societies forbid their members to eat a particular animal which, according to their legends, aided the group's original founders in one way or another and is, therefore, honoured. Squirrels, for example, considered sacred to the Afana (Ibibious, Nigeria), may not be killed and consumed by them (Messenger, 1971). Several animals, including the cow and the monkey, are considered sacred by the Hindu religion and may, therefore, not be eaten.
Favourite foods, some wild, some being domesticated
Many animals are considered clan or totem animals and therefore may not be killed and eaten by members of a particular clan or a similar social group.
Certain wild animals may not be killed or touched because of formal religious dicta, traditional taboos or prejudices. Muslims, for example, do not eat pigs, scavengers and avoid eating hares, rats and mice. For this reason, the Fulani and Peul people of Mali do not eat rodents.
Sex and age taboos in dietary habits may be rather pronounced. Quinn (1959), who made a detailed study of these habits among the Pedi people of South Africa, showed (Table 7) that among 37 species of wild mammals, 12 species or 32% could be eaten only by men and boys. Temporary avoidances of some rodent species are also sometimes prescribed. For example, in Senegal women are restrained from eating bush rats during pregnancy (de Garine, 1962) and in Cameroon among the Evodoula pregnant women avoid the consumption of palm squirrels (Masseyeff et al., 1958). In some parts of Rhodesia the fat mouse is much consumed, but only by adults and not by children (Geifand, 1971).
In Brazil, settlers who feel ill generally avoid "strong" game, thinking it will provoke latent disease or exacerbate symptoms of a chronic illness. The origin of the food avoidances of Transamazon settlers,is unclear, but many have undoubtedly been absorbed, in a modified form, from aboriginal cultures (Smith, 1976). Among the Witoto of the Brazilian northwest, for example, tapir meat is considered to be very strong, especially for women, and is thus eaten sparingly (Whiffen, 1915).
Some of the taboos or prejudices referred to are deep-seated and cannot be readily changed. Yet, education in the principles of nutrition and meat hygiene may gradually modify these views which may be rather ill advised in those areas where a scarcity of animal protein prevails.
There are, also, regional and tribal preferences for special kinds of wild meat, as for example in Ghana the Kwahus prefer bats and the people in the Vzima area prefer monkeys. Among the many edible animal species, the Kung Bushmen of Botswana have definite preferences: only 17 species comprise over 90 % of the animal diet by weight (R. Lee, The Dobe Area Bushmen. Unpublished paper, No. 4, Harvard University).
Finally, some animals are thought to be of medicinal value and eaten when so required. For example, rats (Rattus spp.) are given to children in Ghana who are suffering from whooping cough (Asibey, 1974).
TABLE 2. - Some of the wild animals eaten in Ghana
|
Rodents |
Besides large rodents such as giant rats (Cricetomys spp.), grass cutters (Thryonomys spp.), hares (Lepus spp.), and porcupines (Hystrix spp. and Atherurus spp.), which are generally eaten by both old and young people. All squirrels (Anomalurus spp., Funisciurus spp., Protoxerus spp., Heliosciurus spp., Idiurus spp., etc.) are eaten. |
|
Bats |
Most fruit-bats (Eidolon spp.) are eaten. They may even be smoked and packed in large quantities for markets in Accra, Kumasi, and other population centres. |
|
Anteaters |
All species of pangolins (Manis spp.) and aardvark (Orycteropus capensis) are a delicacy, and their meat fetches high prices. |
|
Primates |
All monkeys (Procolobus spp., Cercopithecus spp., and Papio spp.) as well as chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) form a regular item of diet where they are available. |
|
Birds |
Most birds, including birds of prey sunbirds, and all herons, including battle egrets (Bubulcus ibis), are eaten. |
|
Reptiles |
All tortoises, turtles, both monitor lizards (Varanus spp.), African python (Python sebae), Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica), puff adder (Bitis arietans), and the night adder(Causus maculatus), arc eaten. Children may eat agama lizards (Agama agama). |
|
Others |
Insects such as brown ants are eaten, while the maggot of the palm beetle (Phyncophorus phoenicals) is highly prized. African giant snail (Archachatina sp.) is eaten in large quantities, and in some areas it is the major source of protein. |
Source: Asibey, 1974.
TABLE 3.-Bushmeat record for the Kantamanto market, Accra, Ghana (December 1968 - June 1970)
|
Species |
Weight |
Weight per specimen |
|
Kilograms |
||
|
Grasscutter (Thryonomys spp.) |
117.226 |
4.8 |
|
Grey duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) |
26.406 |
6.7 |
|
Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) |
4.225 |
22.5 |
|
Royal antelope (Neotragus pygmaeus) |
3.682 |
2.4 |
|
Black duiker (Cephalophus niger) |
3.498 |
15.8 |
|
Green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) |
1.055 |
3.2 |
|
Bay duiker (Cephalophus dorsalis) |
701 |
8.9 |
|
Bushpig (Potamochoerus porcus) |
561 |
26.7 |
|
Brush-tailed porcupine (Atheaurus africanus) |
357 |
3.6 |
|
Giant rat (Cricetomys gambianus) |
121 |
1.6 |
|
Monitor lizards (Varanus spp.) |
92 |
4.2 |
|
Two-spotted palm-civet (Nandinia binotata) |
47 |
3.1 |
|
Togo hare (Lupus capensis) |
8 |
1.7 |
Source: Asibey, 1974.
The data shown in the previous sections of this paper should convince even the most critical reader that wildlife is still an important source of protein for human consumption even when little or no effort is made toward the management of this resource. It is my contention, and that of others who have concerned themselves with this field (e.g. Talbot, 1966; Mossman and Mossman, 1976), that there are many areas in the world where livestock or agricultural production is slight but where wild animals could be utilized much more efficiently for food. In these areas high production of wildlife could be maintained on a sustained yield basis without adversely affecting the carrying capacity of the habitat. On such lands wild animals offer a greater potential for a sustained production of meat and other animal products than domestic stock. Evidence for this conclusion comes from comparisons between domestic livestock and wildlife. Wildlife is better adapted to prevailing ecological conditions, more able to utilize the available plant material and requires less water (de Vos, 1973). Wildlife species are also more suited to prevailing climatic conditions than most introduced stock. As detailed by Ledger (1963), the carcasses of wild animals contain far less fat than those of domestic stock. The production of lean meat is a more efficient use of fodder than is the production of fat. Consequently, in terms of meat production wild animals with virtually no fat make far more efficient use of the available vegetation than do domestic animals.
King and Heath (1975) have demonstrated that the species with the greatest potential in a semi-arid environment in Africa is the oryx. It is able to gain weight on forage that is below the capacity of maintaining cattle, and has half the drinking water requirements of dorper sheep and one quarter of Boran cattle when the species are equated on a metabolic weight basis. The same might be true for the addox which is also very well adapted to arid environments. They also believe that the wild African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) might prove most useful in the exploitation of coarse-grass areas infested with tsetse fly where meat is in short supply.
The springbok (Antidorcas marsupials) of South Africa has been shown to have a great potential for game ranching (Skinner, 1973). The kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) is also a most useful species for game ranching purposes (Young, 1973).
Persistent claims have been lodged on behalf of the eland (Taurotragus oryx), being large, fast-growing, economic in its use of water, resistant to trypanosomiasis and having a carcass of good quality (Posselt, 1963). Yet, despite its several ecological and physiological adaptations, the eland is still not the ideal animal for the semiarid rangelands of Africa (Tribe and Pratt, 1973) as compared to certain breeds of beef cattle.
There is strong evidence favouring the use of capybara in marginal areas of the tropics to improve production of animal proteins, especially where domestic species are not as efficient in utilizing the primary production of these ecosystems (González Jiménez, and Parra, 1973).
Mentioned examples are indicative of the potential of wildlife in the nutrition of man in Africa and South America.
TABLE 4. - Average daily consumption of domestic and wild animals and fish and the amount of protein provided in the diet of the Isoko farmers of the Niger delta, Nigeria
|
Food |
Edible portion in grams |
Protein content in grams |
|
Grams |
||
|
Fish (fresh) |
18 |
3.0 |
|
(dried) |
18 |
9.0 |
|
Monkey (fresh) |
8 |
1.2 |
|
(dried) |
7 |
3.2 |
|
Goat |
6 |
1.0 |
|
Pangolin and porcupine |
5 |
0.9 |
|
Grasscutter and giant rat |
3 |
0.6 |
|
African snail |
3 |
0.6 |
|
Palm weevils |
1 |
0.1 |
|
Frogs |
3 |
0.6 |
|
Total animal protein |
20.2 |
|
|
(Total vegetable protein) |
(26.1) |
|
Source: Nicol, 1953.
The pressing need to feed the world population adds an important note to the need to harvest wildlife to yield meat. In selecting targets for increasing the level of animal protein intake, every possible priority should be given to those sources which occur "wild" and have little problems with management, feed procurement, harvesting, processing, markets and consumer acceptance (Clottey, 1968).
Although wildlife still is a valuable source of nutrition for man, increasingly the land from which it has been harvested is subjected to various types of uses which are detrimental to wildlife production. Frequently this includes habitat changes.
Wildlife continues to be a by-product of other types of land use and this is particularly the case in forestry. In fact, secondary forests have a higher carrying capacity for wild animals than primary forests. There is, therefore, a high potential for harvesting wild animals in well-managed forests. It becomes increasingly clear, however, that in order to obtain a sustained yield at a high carrying-capacity level, it will become necessary to manage certain areas specifically for wildlife production, or at least make wildlife a major type of land use in such areas.
Game ranching is a method of wildlife production which may provide the immediate, substantial and tangible benefits that are required, and for this reason it has been advocated by many authors. In addition to providing protein for hungry people, game meat is nutritionally superior to domestic meat because of its higher protein to fat ratio (Ledger, 1963). The practice of game ranching was initially developed in southern Africa, but similar goals can be achieved in many developing areas. In fact, it is a form of land use that can be woven into the cultural fabric of many societies. This practice is in fact closely akin to the ranching of domestic animals (Mossman and Mossman, 1976).
Both biotic and human factors are involved in deciding whether one or more species should be raised on a game ranch. In general more species can be ranched in moist and warm environments than in cold or dry areas. For most human uses, larger species or species that aggregate in large numbers appear most suitable (Mossman and Mossman, ibid.).
As a rule, less than the annual recruitment to the population should be cropped. As cropping of a formerly unharvested population proceeds, compensatory ecological, population and individual physiological adjustments come into play and the rate of increase of the population usually increases. It is this productivity that needs to be enhanced through wildlife and range management efforts (Mossman and Mossman, ibid.). The task of estimating a safe of-take involves discovering the rate of increase of the population at various levels below its carrying-capacity density (Caughley, 1972).
Game ranching should concentrate on areas of marginal value to conventional livestock. Mossman and Mossman (ibid.) state that it is entirely possible that under subsistence conditions in the sub-humid tropics, a game ranch of 10 000 hectares of marginal land could support 1 000 people as soon as optimum productivity is attained.
So far no particular efforts have been made to manage either the population or the habitats of wild rodents used for food in Africa. As long as adequate supplies of these animals were available for food, rural people did not see any need for management other than hunting or trapping. With rapidly increasing human populations, and better prices offered on the urban markets, the situation has changed and there is now an incentive for rural people to spend time and effort to increase production of these rodents. E.O.A. Asibey, Chief Game and Wildlife Officer of Ghana, and a leading authority on the utilization of west African rodents, recognized this some years ago and initiated the production of grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus) in captivity on an experimental basis. His efforts were successful and proved that these rodents reproduce and grow well in captivity. Ghanian farmers raising grasscutters are getting high prices at city markets (den Hartog and de Vos, 1973). The most recent development in Ghana is that "game production reserves" have been set up in the wild for production of grasscutters and other small game.
TABLE 5.- Kinds of rodents consumed in Africa
|
Common name |
Scientific name |
Area of consumption |
Frequency of consumption |
|
1. Squirrel, palm squirrel |
Xerus, Protoxerus, Epixerus, Paraxerus spp., Heliosciurus, Funisciurus, Atlantoxerus getulus |
East Africa |
Fairly common |
|
2. Rat, mouse |
Oenomys, Rattus, Cricetomys, Rhabdomys, Arvicanthis, Steatomys, Jaculus, Gerbillus spp. |
Africa |
Very common |
|
3. Porcupines |
Hystrix, Atherurus spp. |
Tropical Africa |
Fairly common |
|
4. Grasscutter(smoked) |
Thryonomys (Choeromys) spp. |
West Africa |
Very common |
Source: Jardin. C., List of foods used in Africa. FAO, Rome. 1970. Some information on squirrels is given by Child, G.S., FAO, Accra, 1972.
It is still too early to tell whether these experiments can be applied on a wider scale in west Africa and also whether it could be economically feasible to have large-scale production of captive animals. Through quite simple manipulations of the habitat, advancing or changing ecological succession, considerable, although temporary, increases in populations can be expected of wild animals. These manipulations, such as the use of fire, or the seeding of plants particularly palatable to rodents, can be undertaken usually as an integral part of farming operations without much effort by the farmer concerned. Farmers should be taught how to anticipate considerable population increases of certain rodents, how to detect signs of increasing abundance and to harvest large numbers of these animals when peak populations occur. This should not prove to be particularly difficult because most farmers are already familiar with these phenomena to some extent.
TABLE 6. - Game taken near Agrovila Nova Fronteira, Brazil (September 1973-August 1974)
|
COMMON NAME |
Scientific name |
No. killed |
Total |
Total |
|
Kg |
% |
|||
|
South American tapir |
Tapirus terrestris |
8 |
1 180 |
36.7 |
|
White-lipped peccary |
Tayassu pecari |
52 |
1 145 |
35.6 |
|
Brocket deer |
Mazama americana |
15 |
415 |
12.9 |
|
Collared peccary |
Tayassu tajacu |
8 |
109.5 |
3.4 |
|
Jaguar |
Felis onca |
1 |
80 |
2.5 |
|
Tortoise |
Geochelone sp. |
21 |
62 |
1.9 |
|
Paca |
Agouti paca |
8 |
59 |
1.8 |
|
Rabbit |
Sylvilagus brasiliensis |
31 |
32.7 |
1.0 |
|
Agouti |
Dasyprocta sp |
14 |
32 |
1.0 |
|
Puma |
Felis consoler |
1 |
24 |
0.7 |
|
Nine-banded armadillo |
Dasypus novemcinctus |
6 |
16.4 |
0.5 |
|
Giant anteater |
Myrmecophaga tridactyla |
1 |
15 |
0.5 |
|
Black jaguar |
Felis onca |
1 |
12 |
0.4 |
|
Razor-billed curassow |
Mitu mitu |
4 |
11.9 |
0.4 |
|
White-crested guan |
Penelope pileata |
7 |
9 |
0.3 |
|
Howler monkey |
Alouatta belzebub |
1 |
5 |
0.1 |
|
Ruddy ground-dove |
Columbina talpacoti |
26 |
2.1 |
0.06 |
|
Dark-winged trumpeter |
Psophia viridis |
1 |
2 |
0.06 |
|
Brazilian tinamou |
Crypturellus strigulosus |
2 |
0.8 |
0.02 |
|
Marbled wood-quail |
Odontophorus gaganensis |
1 |
0.3 |
0.009 |
|
Cream-coloured woodpecker |
Celeus flavus |
1 |
0.2 |
0.006 |
Source: Smith, 1976.
Three to four years after forest plantations have been established there is normally a dense herbaceous cover on the ground. This offers good conditions for high populations of rodents. If these animals are not utilized, they often damage the young trees by girdling or barking. It is, therefore, a good silvicultural practice to induce farmers to harvest these rodents before damage to trees occurs. Similarly, the damage to field or garden crops can be reduced by removing excess populations of rodents from adjacent fields at the right time.
It will be necessary to develop better harvesting techniques for rodents in the wild to ensure a sustained yield, and also to improve processing, storage and marketing methods.
It is evident that, were continuous and better statistical data available, the value of wildlife as a source of protein would make a greater impression on food and nutrition policy-makers and agricultural economists. They would then take wildlife conservation much more seriously than they do now.
Because of the accelerating land-use pressures which can be readily observed in most parts of the developing world, the possibility of establishing special wildlife management areas to support recreational and local hunting as a form of land use should be explored. At the same time these areas would be protected from competing and/or deleterious forms of land use. Efforts are now under way in Botswana (von Richter, 1976) to establish such areas with the objective in mind to obtain optimum returns and benefits from wildlife and, wherever possible, to incorporate existing land-use practices.
Wildlife is not a panacea for solving global food problems. There are no panacea for such problems. But in many parts of the world the potential of wildlife for contributing to man's wellbeing is much greater than is appreciated by specialists and government authorities dealing with food and nutrition.
It is especially true in developing countries that people who live in and on the countryside, or who live in cities and towns but maintain rural ways and tastes, give particular importance to the nutritional and the cultural value of their local wildlife foods. Such values, which are also among the important pleasures of daily life, should not be minimized or removed in the name of progress. Unfortunately, this is exactly what some food and nutrition specialists are inclined to do. Out of their own cultural prejudices they may minimize, or look down upon, or simply not see certain indigenous foods and ways of life. Instead, the specialists should be studying and making use of traditional foods and methods of food gathering, food and nutrition can often be achieved more rapidly and with greater local acceptance when the production or gathering methods of familiar foods are improved rather than by putting something strange on the table.
TABLE 7. - Mammals of Sekukuniland in southern Africa and their use by the Pedi tribe
|
COMMON NAME |
Scientific name |
Eaten by |
|
Red hare |
Pronolagus randensis |
Entire family |
|
Vervet monkey |
Cercopithecus aethiops |
Men and boys only |
|
Blue wildebeest |
Connochaetes taurinus |
Entire family |
|
Warthog |
Phacocoerus aethiopicus |
Entire family |
|
Klipspringer |
Oreotragus oreotragus |
Entire family |
|
Hippopotamus |
Hippopotamus amphibius |
Entire family |
|
Reedbuck |
Redunca arundinum |
Entire family |
|
Cane-rat |
Thryonomys swinderianus |
Men and boys only |
|
Mountain reedbuck |
Redunca geoffroyi |
Entire family |
|
Galago |
Galago senegalensis |
Men and boys only |
|
Cape hare |
Lepus capensis |
Entire family |
|
Southern bush hare |
Lepus saxatilis |
Entire family |
|
Suricate |
Suricata suricatta |
Men and boys only |
|
Pole cat |
Ictonyx galeata |
Entire family |
|
African porcupine |
Hystrix galeata |
Men and boys only |
|
Rock dassie |
Procavia capensis |
Entire family |
|
Wildcat |
Felis libyca |
Men and boys only |
|
Impala |
Aepyceros melampus |
Entire family |
|
Sable antilope |
Hippotragus niger |
Entire family |
|
Eland |
Taurotragus oryx |
Entire family |
|
Steenbuck |
Raphicerus campestris |
Entire family |
|
Grey duiker |
Sylvicapra grimmia |
Entire family |
|
Grant's zebra |
Equus burchelli |
Entire family |
|
Hedgehog |
Erinaceus frontalis |
Entire family |
|
Yellow-footed squirrel |
Paraxerus cepapi |
Men and boys only |
|
Koaterbuck |
Kobus ellipsiprymnus |
Entire family |
|
Bushbuck |
Tragelaphus scriptus |
Entire family |
|
Aardwolf |
Proteles cristatus |
Men and boys only |
|
Antbear |
Orycteropus afer |
Entire family |
|
Kudu |
Tragelaphus strepsiceros |
Entire family |
|
Giraffe |
Giraffa camelopardalis |
Entire family |
|
African elephant |
Loxodonta africana |
Entire family |
|
Springhare |
Pedetes capensis |
Entire family |
|
Springbuck |
Antidorcas marsupialis |
Entire family |
|
Large-spotted genes |
Genetta tigrina |
Men and boys only |
|
Black rhinoceros |
Diceros bicornis |
Entire family |
|
Baboon |
Papio ursinus |
Men and boys only |
Source: Quinn. 1959.
TABLE 8.-Game taken near Agrovila Leonardo da Vinci, Brazil (December 1973 - August 1974)
|
COMMON NAME |
Scientific name |
No. killed |
Total |
Total |
|
Kg |
% |
|||
|
White-lipped peccary |
Tayassu pecari |
52 |
1 166 |
46.5 |
|
South American tapir |
Tapirus terrestris |
6 |
490 |
19.6 |
|
Brocket deer |
Mazama americana |
15 |
340 |
13.6 |
|
Collared peccary |
Tayassu tajacu |
18 |
203 |
8.1 |
|
Tortoise |
Geochelone sp. |
36 |
102 |
4.1 |
|
Nine-banded armadillo |
Dasypus novemcinctus |
29 |
75.9 |
3.0 |
|
Paca |
Agouti paca |
10 |
55.7 |
2.2 |
|
Agouti |
Dasyprocta sp. |
17 |
46.7 |
1.9 |
|
Eight-banded armadillo |
Dasypus kappleri |
1 |
12 |
0.5 |
|
White-crested guan |
Penelope pileata |
5 |
9.5 |
0.4 |
|
Razor-billed curassow |
Mitu mitu |
1 |
3.5 |
0.1 |
|
Blue-headed parrot |
Pionus menstruus |
1 |
0.2 |
- |
Source: Smith. 1976.
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