Appendix 1
TECHNICAL CONSULTATION ON AQUACULTURE IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

27–30 October 1987

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

1. Mr Hans Aase
   Aquaculturist (APO)
   ALCOM -
   Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme
   P.O. Box 30563
   Lusaka
   Zambia

2. Mr Arne Andreasson
   Programme Manager
   ALCOM -
   Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme
   P.O. Box 30563
   Lusaka
   Zambia

3. Mr Joseph Lucas Angwazi
   Commissioner of Community Development
   Ministry of Community Development, Culture, Youth and Sports
   P.O. Box 1422
   Dar-es-Salaam
   United Republic of Tanzania

4. Dr John D. Balarin
   Project Leader
   ICLARM
   P.O. Box 593
   Lilongwe
   Malawi

5. Mr E.D. Boma
   Project Co-Manager
   Fish Culture Development Project
   P.O. Box 350100
   Chilanga
   Zambia

6. Mr S. Chimbuya
   Chief Ecologist (Fisheries)
   Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management
   P.O. Box 8365
   Causeway
   Harare
   Zimbabwe

7. Dr Patrick M. Chipungu
   Chief Fisheries Research Officer
   Fisheries Department
   Ministry of Agriculture and Water Development
   P.O. Box 350100
   Chilanga
   Zambia

8. Ms Marianne Damhaug
   Sr Project Officer
   Royal Norwegian Embassy
   Lusaka, Zambia

9. Dr V. Gopalakrishnan
   Project Manager
   FAO Office (GCP/ZAM/038/NET)
   P.O. Box 350034
   Chilanga
   Zambia

10. Mr Boyd A. Haight
    Aquaculturist
    ALCOM -
    Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme
    P.O. Box 30563
    Lusaka
    Zambia

11. Dr Peter B. Hayward
    Sociologist
    Ploughshare Consultancy Services
    Private Bag E39
    Lusaka, Zambia

12. Dr Francis Henderson
    Chief, Inland Fisheries Resources and Aquaculture Services
    FAO
    Via delle Terme di Caracalla
    Rome 00100 - Rome

13. Ms Zakhe Hlanze
    Rural Sociologist
    Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
    P.O. Box 162
    Mbabane, Swaziland

14. Mr Rolf Larsson
    Socio-economist (APO)
    ALCOM -
    Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme
    P.O. Box 30563
    Lusaka, Zambia

15. Mr Raphael Lema
    Senior Aquaculturist
    Department of Fisheries
    P.O. Box 2462
    Dar-es-Salaam
    United Republic of Tanzania

16. Ms Seipati Mashapha
    Fisheries Research Officer
    Ministry of Agriculture
    Fisheries Section
    Private Bag A 82
    Maseru 100
    Lesotho

17. Ms Thope Matobo
    Rural Sociologist
    Ministry of Agriculture
    Research Division
    P.O. Box 829
    Maseru 100
    Lesotho

18. Mr Charles Theodore Maguswi
    Biologist (Aquaculture)
    Department of Fisheries
    Mwekera Fish Farm
    P.O. Box 22797
    Kitwe
    Zambia

19. Mr Hendrik van der Mheen
    Aquaculturist
    ALCOM -
    Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme
    P.O. Box 30563
    Lusaka, Zambia

20. Ms Jennie van der Mheen-Sluijer
    Socio-economist
    ALCOM -
    Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme
    P.O. Box 30563
    Lusaka, Zambia

21. Mr Orton V. Msiska
    Senior Fisheries Research Officer
    Department of Fisheries
    P.O. Box 44
    Domasi
    Malawi

22. Mr C.A. Mumba
    Chief Fish Culturist
    Department of Fisheries
    P.O. Box 350100
    Chilanga
    Zambia

23. Mr Alex Mushaike
    District Officer
    Ministry of Community Development and Women's Affairs
    P.O. Box 32
    Binga
    Zimbabwe

24. Mr Johannes M. Msibi
    Fisheries Officer
    Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives
    P.O. Box 162
    Mbabane
    Swaziland

25. Ms Martha Mumba
    Sociologist (GCP/INT/436/SWE, Chipata Office)
    P.O. Box 510119
    Chipata
    Zambia

26. Mr Joseph Chilufya Mutale
    Aquaculturist
    Department of Fisheries
    Ministry of Agriculture and Water Development
    P.O. Box 510738
    Chipata
    Zambia

27. Mr Dionisio Dias Nhapulo
    Fishculture Technician
    Fishculture Department
    Ministry of Agriculture
    P.O. Box 3652
    Maputo
    Mozambique

28. Mr Shaft M. Nengu
    Fisheries Field Officer
    Ministry of Agriculture
    Department of Agricultural Field Services
    Fisheries Unit
    P.O. Box 76
    Maun
    Botswana

29. Ms Peggy Ntseane
    Rural Sociologist
    Division of Planning and Statistics
    Ministry of Agriculture
    P/Bag 003
    Gaborone
    Botswana

30. Dr Lennart Nyman
    Director
    Institute of Freshwater Research
    S-170 11 Drottningholm
    Sweden

31. Mr Brian B.A. Rashidi
    Fisheries Research Officer
    Fisheries Department
    P.O. Box 206
    Zomba
    Malawi

32. Mr Rathindra Nath Roy
    Extension and Training Officer
    FAO Bay of Bengal Programme
    P.O. Box 1054
    Madras 600 018
    India

33. Mr Esou T. Shonhiwa
    A.E.O. Fisheries
    Agritex
    P.O. Box 8117
    Causeway
    Harare
    Zimbabwe

34. Mr Karl O. Wahlstrom
    Aquaculturist
    ALCOM -
    Aquaculture for Local Community Development Programme
    P.O. Box 30563
    Lusaka
    Zambia

35. Ms Prudence Woodford-Berger
    Social Anthropologist
    Development Study Unit
    Department of Social Anthropology
    University of Stockholm
    106-91 Stockholm
    Sweden

Appendix 2
TECHNICAL CONSULTATION ON AQUACULTURE IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

27–30 October 1987

Appendix 3
TECHNICAL CONSULTATION ON AQUACULTURE IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT

27–30 October 1987

LIST OF DOCUMENTS

Appendix 4
AQUACULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN BOTSWANA

by

S.M. Nengu
Fisheries Field Officer

and

P.G. Ntseane
Rural Sociologist

1. INTRODUCTION

Botswana is a landlocked country with a population of 950 000 (based on the 1981 population census). Only 8% of the total population lives in the major fishing localities. The fishing areas consist mainly of groups not only economically marginal, but also peripheral in terms of transport, access to central business districts, income, etc. Farming, livestock and fishing are the main resources of income for these communities.

The main fishery activities are concentrated in the Okavango Delta, which consists of floodplains, rivers channels and lagoons with an approximate area of 10 000–16 000 km². Depending on the size of the flood, some parts of the system (including some productive lakes) dry out during drought, hence depriving fishermen of essential fishing grounds. Chobe river provides good fishing potential, but due to the fast flow rate and depth of the river there is little fishing. Until now, Chobe fishing was carried out in Lake Liambezi which has now dried out.

There are other fishing activities in Shashe Dam, but the number of fishermen is restricted to three. The reason for this is that the same water is used for domestic purposes and recreation. There is no fishing in Gaborone and Kanye Dams.

Finally, Botswana has no aquaculture programme, except for stocking of dams which was carried out in 1967–69.

2. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES

Unlike in other African countries, the fishery is still at its early stages of development. The fishing community consists of both subsistence and commercial fishermen, who belong to the poorer groups. As a result their fishing progress is BFR mainly dependent on government financial assistance schemes (FAP and AE 10). Further, the Government also assures markets for their processed fish products.

The actual number of fishermen is not known. However, estimates range from 700 to 5 000, and include occasional, seasonal and professional fishermen.

The use of the traditional “mokolo” (dug-out canoe) has been popular with fishermen to date. This is attributed to the fact that it is cheap to make and easy to buy locally. Nevertheless, nowadays it is becoming very difficult for fishermen to obtain this traditional canoe, as the wood used to make it is scarce. Therefore, there is now a gradual change from the use of a “mokolo” to modern fibreglass boats. The high cost of these boats is compensated for by the mere fact that the fishermen use government financial schemes to purchase them. The present number of boats is not known.

Before the introduction of modern fishing gear, traditional fishing methods and gear were used (some still persist). These included fish traps, baskets, spears, etc. Given the nature of fishing areas, with wild water animals and seasonal floods, the traditional fishing gear proved inefficient. This led to the introduction of the present-day gillnets. These are popular with the fishing communities and they increased their local catch considerably. The number of gillnets is not known.

There are no statistics of fish catches. The catch is comprised mainly of 8 major species: bream (cichlids), barbel (Clarias spp.), silver barbel (Schilbe mystus), bottlenose (Momyrus spp.), pike (Hepsetus odoe), tigerfish (Hydrocynus vittatus), sardines and Synodontis spp.

Bream, barbel and silver barbel are the main economic species sold to the Government purchasing scheme. Moreover, they are popular for local consumption.

3. SOCIO-ECONOMICS OF RURAL POPULATIONS

(a) Family structure

The composition of the household determines the access to labour and hence the possibility of engaging oneself in fish production. The composition refers to number, gender and age. The region has a statistical average of six persons per household and a large number of female-headed households (37%). Household units are either nuclear or extended (most adhere to the extended family type). The authority structure with households is male-dominated. Men's influence is particularly strong in matter related to production for cash; e.g., an increasing degree of market integration of fisheries is likely to enhance the influence of men's incomes. Women have a relatively strong influence in matters concerning routine domestic tasks including the utilization of subsistence production. Fish kept within village settings will thus largely be managed by women.

All households in the fishing area are involved in productive activities, largely overlapping in time and demand on domestically-controlled labour and resources. The actual allocation of labour and resources made between different systems of production will primarily depend on potential returns.

Due to cultural values which are attached to cattle ownership, surplus from all categories of operations may be channeled away from fisheries if options for further expansion are not available.

Little is known about the division of labour in fisheries with the exception of gillnet fishing as a male activity, and fishing with baskets for females. These settlement are small and scattered, and some comprise family/kinship units. These scattered settlements very often combine land areas, grazing for livestock and fishing areas.

(b) Main economic and/or subsistence activities

In general, agriculture is the dominant activity for the fishing population. The majority of households (70–80%) are engaged in subsistence production. Popular crops grown include sorghum, maize, millet, beans and a variety of melons. Productivity in agriculture is low and almost always at or below subsistence level. Lack of water-control techniques in the floodplains and prevalent drought conditions now preclude the extensive use of this potential.

Although cattle constitute the main sources of wealth and economic security, the bulk of the population in the fishing communities does not own any, hence the majority of households depend on marginal sources and labour-based drought-relief employment.

In order to supplement production, other economic activities pursued include basket-making and beer-brewing (especially by women). Both men and women collect thatching grass and reed for home use and sale. Sale of palm wine is also a source of income.

Due to Government regulations and decreasing game population the traditional income from hunting by the local population has practically disappeared.

Fishing is an activity practised by the majority of households and communities living in and around the Okavango and the Chobe. Most people who fish do so for home consumption.

Diversification is a necessary and required strategy for marginalized people to reduce risks. For this reason most households in the fishing area cultivate, keep livestock, collect wild fruits and vegetables, make baskets, brew beer and catch fish. Some of these activities are seasonal while others are carried out intermittently throughout the year. Some of the products have a market value and others serve purely for consumption.

Due to the remoteness of the area, transport is a major problem. This effectively curtails any desire to make money through increased local economic exchange whether of fish, agricultural produce or crafts. Imported goods are expensive and exports are negatively influenced by high marketing and transport costs.

(c) Ownership and access to land

No studies have been undertaken regarding fish production in Northern Botswana. However, the system of right related to other production activities indicates that access to fishing grounds may be exclusive and that it differentiates significantly between households and individual producers.

As an example, the rights to the highly fertile melapo, in which arable agriculture is carried out, are monopolized to an extent which is not found in other parts of Botswana. The reason for this is, as in the case of fish, the value of different locations varies greatly; production capacities deviate several hundred percent between different soil types.

The rights to fishing grounds in this region are likely to be both individual (as in the melapo, when fish can be harvested as the floodwater recedes), tied to specific groups (based on kinship, economic position), or communal (i.e., exclusive in relation to a community or section of a community). While too little is presently known about the existing system of traditional rights to fishing grounds, it is bound to have an impact on the option for different categories of producers to benefit from fishery development efforts.

If the access to the fish resources is not taken into account in the northern part of the country the following could result:

• some sections of the population may be excluded from access to existing fish resources

• women, in particular, may suffer as rights to natural resources are normally attached to men

• an optimal exploitation of fish resources may be hampered as fishing grounds are unutilized in periods when producers controlling them are engaged in other activities.

As regards aquaculture, land rights for other parts of the country pose fewer problems as both individuals and groups of people have the right to use any portion of land not being utilized for any type of production.

(d) Employment, un- or underemployment

There is a critical lack of employment opportunities in the Okavango and the Chobe districts. Cash employment is available for less than 6% of the population. Formal wage employment is confined to Maun, Kasane and a lesser extent to the administrative units in Gumare. Private organizations, such as private safari companies, offer few seasonal jobs primarily during the hunting season.

(e) Educational levels

The northern part of Botswana is characterized by inadequate educational facilities, and enrolment is among the lowest in the country. This is evidenced by the fact that most fishermen at the onset of the fisheries development had no formal education. They were also uneducated in any form of modern fishing technology and management; hence a training schedule was introduced.

(f) Income levels

The Rural Income Distribution Survey (RIDS) from 1976 concluded that the standard of living in Ngamiland was 30% below the national average. This has been supported by current studies which show that a large variety of alternative sources of income (including fishing) yield low returns.

(g) Nutritional status

There are no aggregate data on the nutrition of the population, except regarding children's health (available at all clinics, health posts and mobile health stops monitoring children for weight). General information related to the political economy of Ngamiland and Chobe district shows poor and inadequate medical services, particularly when seen in relation to the unhealthiness of the environment and the poor nutritional standard in the population. A recent study shows that for the district of Ngamiland as a whole the percentage of children under five years who are nutritionally at risk (i.e., below 80% of normal body weight) is 12.2%. In remote villages and settlements, the percentage may be higher. In fact in 1986/87 40 t of fish were given to mothers and children under the special feeding programme for children with less than 80% normal bodyweight and to expectant mothers.

4. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND PLANS FOR SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

Hitherto, there has been no Government policy with regard to aquaculture development. However, the Fisheries Unit has recently drafted a fisheries policy which will be submitted to the Ministry Planning Committee. In the policy draft a request for aquaculture feasibility studies was made. It was also agreed that an aquaculture expert be recruited to work with the local officers.

5. PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS FOR DEVELOPMENT

Although no aquaculture is carried out in Botswana at present, its future potential is estimated to be high. Aquaculture would be most suitable in the larger areas such as Francistown and Gaborone where demand for fish is high and infrastructure available to facilitate inexpensive production. Research by the Fisheries Unit shows that there is a variety of local species (about 80 in the Okavango and 50 in the Chobe). Aquaculture development will open up new areas for exploitation in other rural areas of Botswana by using man-made ponds.

Three main positive aspect for aquaculture development are:

1. yields and consumption from aquaculture may provide protein in areas generally with little access to appropriate surplus fish thus alleviating malnutrition problems

2. substantial yields from aquaculture will provide additional employment for the rural population which presently flock to the urban areas in the hope of obtaining employment

3. given the current clinic and school-feeding programmes which will continue for some time and the high demand of fresh fish in urban areas, the market situation is promising (school feeding is a rapid source of education).

Three main constraints are:

1. little expertise is available to initiate aquaculture. This applies to both fishermen and the Fisheries Unit. The fishermen have a low level of education and are using traditional methods, hence most of the production is below or at subsistence level. The Fisheries Unit has neither the relevant staff nor the experience in aquaculture.

2. given the climatic conditions in Botswana which are characterized by erratic rainfall, fluctuations of floods and a cycle of droughts, the development of aquaculture may experience shortage of water. Coupled to this is the problem of shared use of water. Given the diversified strategy adopted by the marginal people (the current fishermen) if aquaculture is developed in areas where there is shortage of water, e.g., Eastern and Central Botswana, there will be a problem of shared use, for example, a pond may be used for horticulture, watering livestock and fishing.

3. fish acceptance: fish is traditionally a source of food for a small group of the population (a portion of the 8% of Botswana population which stays around the Okavango and Chobe water system). This poses a problem of acceptance of fish for the rest of the population. At present 50% of Ngamiland population is receiving relief feeding and many women and children are consuming fish as part of this assistance. It should be recognized that this does not rule out the problem of acceptance since it is only a temporary relief measure.

Appendix 5
AQUACULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ZAMBIA

by

P.M. Chipungu, Chief Fisheries Research Officer

E.D. Boma, Project Co-Manager, Fish Culture Development Project

C.T. Baguswi, Biologist (Aquaculture)

C.A. Mumba, Chief Fish Culturist

1. INTRODUCTION

Zambia is a landlocked country with a total area of 752 620 m². Elevation is 1 067–1 372 m above sea level.

The mean national air temperature is 26°–32°C during the hot season (September–November) and 15°–26°C in winter.

The rainy season lasts from November to April; but local variations occur between north and south. The mean annual rainfall in the south is 500–600 mm, in the central belt it is about 760 mm while in the North and North-Western Provinces, the mean annual rainfall is at least 1 270 mm.

Overall, Zambia is blessed with extensive water resources. The total water surface area is 56 446 km² or approximately 7.5%. Potential surface water is estimated at 90 million m³ of which 74 million m³ is base flow during the dry season.

Ground water is mostly located in areas with Kalahari sands, alluvial deposits and limestone. It is generally at 5–10 m depth, but extremes range from 2 to 25 m. The hydrostatic level fluctuates 2–3 m/year.

2. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES

Planned management of fisheries of Zambia takes place mainly in large rivers, lakes, swamps and flood plains. Minor fisheries which comprise small rivers/streams, forest lakes and impoundments are occasionally monitored but rarely managed.

The fish production figures given in Table 1 are for 1984. The figures do not include catch from the industrial fishery sector and minor fisheries.

The total fish production from major fisheries over the past ten years has increased from 57 464 t in 1975 to 69 858 t in 1985. In 1984, 47 595 t came from artisanal fisheries. The estimated maximum sustainable yield from Zambia's main fishery areas is about 75 000 t. The predicted demand for 1990 is about 90 000 t. The per caput fish consumption has been declining steadily, dropping from 17 kg in 1970 to just over 10 kg in 1984. The decline has mainly been a result of:

• rising population

• slow growth rate due to low technology input and general scarcity of fishing requisites

• restrictions on fish importation

At peak availability (around 1970), fish accounted for 65% as a source of animal protein in rural areas and 57% in urban areas.

In its fourth National Development Plan for the fisheries subsector, Zambia hopes to close the gap between supply and demand of fish (at approximately 12 kg per caput) through optimization of capture fisheries output and by promoting fish-farming.

3. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE

Small-scale fish-farming has been practised in Zambia since the early 1950s.

By 1966, 1 231 fish-ponds totalling 100 ha were producing approximately 88 t of fish. The production for 1984 was estimated at 300 t. Recent surveys indicate that fish production from aquaculture during 1986 was about 1 000 t, of which 245.70 t came from small-scale aquaculture, 570 t from large-scale commercial fish-farms, and 255 t from Government demonstration fish-farms and public water conservation dams. Table 3 is a compilation of recent statistics on small-scale fish-farmers in Zambia. Figures indicate that the number of pond owners now stands at 2 065, the total number of ponds is 4 371, and the total pond area has grown to approximately 236.96 ha. Production records are generally poorly kept and until recently no proper records were maintained by the Department's extension service units.

Farming practices vary from one area to another. For example, pond size varies greatly in different provinces; generally they tend to be larger in areas where aquaculture has been introduced more recently and this reflects variations in techniques used by Government extension services. For example fish-cum-duck/chicken is practised in North-Western and Copperbelt Provinces, while only supplementary feeding using kitchen waste, fruits and vegetable is generally practised in other areas.

Three local species (Tilapia rendalli, Oreochromis macrochir and O. andersonii) are used since they are readily available at all Government demonstration farms which also serve as seed supply centres. Introduced species such as Cyprinus carpio, O. niloticus and O. aureus are still restricted to large private commercial farms, such as the Tate and Lyle farm at Nakambala Sugar Estates.

Recent work by the FAO/UNDP fish culture project has demonstrated that in integrated systems, O. andersonii has the fastest growth rate among the local species. Among the exotic species, the project has obtained commendable results with mirror carp from Czecoslovalia, and the Government with common carp from Malawi. For the small-scale fish-farmer, marketing of farm produce is generally direct to the consumers either at source or at nearby markets.

Credit facilities are available to the small-scale fish-farmers only in the Copperbelt region by private arrangement with the banks. In North-Western Province, grants have been provided for fish-farming purposes by the ICARA II project. A credit system is also planned for Eastern, Copperbelt and Lusaka Provinces under the FAO/UNDP project currently in operation in these areas.

The general lack of organized credit systems has so far been one of the major drawbacks in the development of small-scale aquaculture in Zambia.

4. SOCIO-ECONOMICS OF SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE

Small-scale fish-farming is generally a part-time occupation. Ponds are invariably owned by individual households, and are owner-managed. Initial capital investment is minimal.

Hired labour is often involved during pond construction and occasionally when cropping. When monetary transaction is involved, a rate of about K 3.15/day is currently used to pay the hired labourers.

As small-scale aquaculture is a part-time occupation, most pond-owners are also cash-crop farmers growing maize, sunflower, soy beans, groundnuts, etc. Integration with farm animals such as cattle, pigs, ducks, chicken, is also a common practice. The manure from these animals is used in part for pond fertilization. Citrus fruits are frequently grown at fish-farms. Currently the most common fruits grown are guavas, oranges, bananas, pineapples and mangoes, all of which benefit from abundant water resources and readily available manure.

Incomes from small-scale fish-farms are not well documented.

5. SOCIO-ECONOMICS OF RURAL POPULATIONS

In Zambia rural populations invariably incorporate an extended family system. Most tribes can clearly be classed into either partrilinear or matrilinear systems; most tribes from Western Province are strongly patrilinear while those from Luapula, Northern, Southern and Eastern Provinces are strongly matrilinear. The significance of these differences is shown in the way property, including land, is inherited. In patrilinear systems, property is handed down to sons and daughters while in a matrilinear system, property is inherited by nephews and nieces. This is an important consideration by institutions offering credit facility with minimal security.

As stated elsewhere, the main economic activity of rural populations is subsistence farming. The exception to this is in areas adjacent to large water bodies, e.g., Luapula valley, Zambezi floodplain, and Kafue flats where artisanal fishing plays a major role as an economic activity. A third main economic activity of rural populations in Zambia is animal husbandry, especially in the semi-arid Southern and Western Provinces where cattle-rearing is accorded high priority.

In Zambia all land technically belongs to the State, so that land acquisition for farming purposes is generally not a problem. In the rural areas, land is under the charge of family units but coordinated by local chiefs. In urban areas land is State-controlled and access is by leasehold. The former type is more accessible but offers less security; conversely, the latter is less accessible but offers more security.

Most rural inhabitants are self-employed (peasant farmers and artisanal fishermen). Formal employment is usually available on ad hoc basis.

Both formal and non-formal groupings are common among village communities. For example, non-formal grouping is practised during pond construction and in the management of fish-farms in North-Western Province and during cultivation and at harvesting in most agriculture communities. Formal groupings such as cooperative unions are common in the agriculture sector and have more recently evolved among artisanal fishermen, e.g., at Itzhi-tezhi, Nyimba (on Kafue flats) and Kampinda on Mweru-wa-Ntipa. Formal groupings of artisanal fisherfolks have so far not been viable, probably because of diverse backgrounds and differing ambitions of the participants.

Most artisanal fishermen have had no formal education. On the contrary, the majority of pond-owners are literate and are people who have retired from formal employment. The pond-owners had some private capital from the outset and have demonstrated greater foresight.

6. GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION AND INSTITUTIONS FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

The official administrative body for the development and management of fisheries is the Department of Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Development. The Department is headed by a Director and is organized into four divisions as follows:

• Fisheries Research

• Training

• Extension and Development

• Fish Culture

Each division has field stations in various localities throughout the country. The Fish Culture Division has 19 demonstration farms including three currently undertaking research work under the auspices of FAO's Project GCP/ZAM/038/NET. Training of extension workers (Fish Scouts) takes place at Kasaka National Fisheries Training Centre and training of prospective fish-farmers takes place at Mwekera Fish Farmers' Training Centre near Kitwe. There are at present no local training facilities for mid-level and senior technical and professional staff within the country.

7. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND PLANS FOR SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

In Zambia, national development programmes are conceptualized in five-year development plans. The current five-year plan (the fourth in the series) covers 1985 to 1989.

The general items of the current plan in the fisheries sub-sector is to improve the socially backward communities by producing more protein-rich food, providing more employment opportunities, accelerating the development of technology for rational exploitation of the resources and developing the necessary infrastructure for organized fish production, storage and distribution.

In the fish-farming sector, the Government hopes to develop fish-farming at three levels (village level, small-scale farms, and large-scale commercial farms).

other concepts in the plan are to:

• encourage integrated fish-farming

• establish fish seed production and distribution centres in different parts of the country

• provide necessary inputs and disseminate technology through extension services

• raise aquaculture into an organized industry.

In promoting small-scale aquaculture, the Government hopes to:

• develop integrated fish-farming systems using existing resources

• develop appropriate methodology for small-scale aquaculture

• establish fish-culture demonstration centres throughout the country

• train fish-farmers in modern fish culture management practices

• train extension workers

• organize credit facilities for small-scale fish-farmers.

In order to realize these objectives, the following aided projects are being implemented.

• Fish Culture Development in Zambia (FAO/UNDP/GRZ) was active from 1982 to 1986 and has been extended for a further 3 years as GCP/ZAM/038/NET. The new project is intended to help standardize and extend the methods of improved management techniques developed during the initial phase. The new project has been extended to Eastern and Copperbelt Provinces through Government fish-farms at Chipata and Mwekera respectively.

• The ICARA II fish pond project in North-Western Province is funded by USAID and will terminate in June 1988. The project has established demonstration fish-ponds and a seed supply centre at Mwinilunga, and helped to teach pond construction and integrated fish-farming to settled refugees and local villages.

The project operates on a grant scheme to the participants.

• The Aquaculture for local Community Development Programme. This is inter-regional, initially focusing on the SADCC countries of which Zambia is one. The preparatory phase is funded by SIDA and implemented by FAO. A major objective of the preparatory phase of the programme is to carry out in-depth studies on the social, cultural, economic, biological, technical, environmental aspects of aquaculture in order to understand their role in and implications to rural development.

• The Northern Province Aquaculture Development Project. This project has only recently started. It is funded by NORAD and is based at Misamfu in Kasama (Northern Province). The project will be funded for 5 years. The objectives are:

  • to rehabilitate one of the rural demonstration stations

  • to strengthen fish-culture extension services in the Province.

Other projects planned to assist the development of small-scale aquaculture include the development of a National Aquaculture Centre at Chilanga and the establishment of mass production of fish seed.

8. PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS FOR DEVELOPMENT

The prospects for development of aquaculture in Zambia are bright for the following reasons:

• good climate and abundant water resources

• high priority given by the Government, particularly in view of the large shortfall in fish production from natural water bodies which cannot be economically covered by imports under the present economic situation

• a well established infrastructure has been set up over the years, for example there are demonstration fish-farms in all nine provinces. These offer the potential to provide extension services to local communities.

In spite of the extensive effort made by the Zambia Government to develop the aquaculture sector, there are some significant drawbacks which have to be overcome. These include:

• inadequacy of extension services mainly as a result of financial restraints

• insufficient development of seed supply centres coupled with inadequate facilities to service the prospective fish-farmers

• inadequate credit facilities mainly due to inadequate securities offered by the prospective small-scale fish-farmers

Fig. 1 REPUBLIC OF ZAMBIA

FISHERY AREAS AND FISH FARMS

DRAWN BY C.J. NYIRENDA DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES JANUARY, 1987.

Table 1

STATUS OF ARTISANAL FISHERIES IN ZAMBIA (1984)

¹ Average peak flood

Table 2

SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE IN ZAMBIA

Appendix 6
AQUACULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN TANZANIA

by

R.E. Lema, Senior Aquaculturist

J.L. Angwazi, Commissioner for Community Development

1. INTRODUCTION

Tanzania is endowed with vast areas of natural water-bodies where fishing is carried out, but fresh fish does not reach people living in villages far from the main capture centres because of poor roads and lack of facilities for processing, preservation and transportation of fish.

In some of these rural areas beef, mutton and goat meat are available in small quantities but in others animal protein sources may be lacking. The estimated per caput consumption of fish is 12 kg/year which is high compared to 8.4 kg/year for beef, mutton and goat meat.

Fish-farming is therefore encouraged in the rural areas in order to supplement the diet and to curb the protein deficiency among the communities. Although there are no precise records of when aquaculture started in Tanzania, various surveys have indicated that a few ponds were constructed during the late 1940s. During the mid-fifties and early sixties there was a rapid increase in the number of people interested in fish-farming and now there are fish ponds scattered in various regions of the country.

Given the vast areas for capture fisheries, aquaculture was left unconsidered until the later years of the Second Five-Year Development Plan (1969–1974). Development plans and strategies have now been laid down and implementation is being carried out in phases.

This paper examines the role of aquaculture in rural community development underlining its future prospects.

2. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE

There are 5 000 fish ponds in the country. This number has frequently changed in various reports because of different findings in a number of surveys and the fact that new ponds are being constructed. These ponds have an average size of 0.1 ha and cover a total area of 500 ha.

Production from these ponds ranges from 20 to 100 kg/year. The estimated average production per pond per year is 75 kg. The total production from fish-culture is estimated at 375 t/year. A few ponds with ordinary management have evidenced that these ponds can produce up to 200 kg/year if only fertilization and supplementary feeding are practised.

Freshwater fish-farming in stagnant water fish ponds is the common method practised in Tanzania. No efforts have been made to establish brackishwater and mariculture farms. Hombolo Leprosy Centre in Dodoma Region has established a freshwater hatchery unit with recirculating system using concrete tanks. The centre distributes Oreochromis niloticus fingerlings and “Peking” ducklings to fish-farmers. Tilapia and Oreochromis are the commonly cultured species. Efforts are being made to popularize O. niloticus because of its superior growth. Clarias mossambicus has often been harvested together with the principal species though they were not initially stocked.

There is one trout farm in Arusha Region owned by a private farmer which has been successful. Other fish-farmers will be encouraged to take up trout-farming.

Fish-culture systems in practice are: family fish-ponds, communal fish-ponds and in a few cases artisanal fish-farms. In the first two cases, land, labour and even feed and fertilizers are provided free. It may therefore be generalized that the initial investment is minimum, if any.

In the case of the artisanal system which only a few able farmers are operating, most of the activities and other requirements are paid for in cash. Family ponds range in number from 1 to 4 and on the average 2. Based on the production estimates of 75 kg/pond/year, a family will have 150 kg of fish from the ponds at the end of the year if intermediate fishing is not done.

However, because intermediate fishing is commonly carried out, this family harvests 100 kg and of this harvest 90 kg is sold.

The price of fish ranges from Tsh 50 to Tsh 100 and the average is Tsh 60/kg. A family will therefore realize Tsh 5 400/year from two ponds. Communal ponds range from 4 to 20 but the average is only 6. Intermediate fishing is not common in this case but during the total harvest a greater portion will be shared among the families. If 450 kg of fish are harvested and 200 kg are left for sale, this community will realize Tsh 12 000 which can be used to expand the farm.

The Cooperative and Rural Development Bank is responsible for credit facilities to fishermen and fish-farmers. Few fish-farmers have benefitted from these facilities due to unreliable returns from culture operations, a fact that causes the bankers to hesitate. However, with the present move to introduce and popularize integrated aquaculture fish-cum-pigs/ducks, production from culture units will increase and the bankers may be convinced to provide loans for expansion.

3. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES

In the freshwater fisheries of Tanzania, which account for 85% of the total annual fish production, there is an area of 58 000 km² which includes Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika, Nyasa, Rukwa, other minor lakes, dams, swamps and rivers.

The Tanzania marine coastline is 800 km and the trawlable area is estimated to be 64 000 km². The small-scale fisheries accounts for 95% of the total annual fish production which on the average is 200 000 t. It is estimated that there are 50 000 part-time and 250 000 full-time fishermen. The common fishing vessels used by the small-scale fishermen, approximately 21 000 (1985), range from outrigger canoes and dhow type planked boats powered by sails to small size motorized boats. A wide variety of small-scale and traditional gears are used. These include gillnets, shark nets, seine nets, purse-seine nets, scoop/cast nets, long-lines, hooks, basket traps, fixed traps and trawl nets.

According to the fisheries statistics, there has been an increase in the annual production for the past few years. Although an average of 200 000 t is quoted in various reports it may be noted that production for 1985 was 300 751.6 t.

The exploitable commercial species for marine water include kingfish, Lethrinus, sardines, rock cods, catfish, mackerel, sharks and rays.

Other fishery products which are mainly for export market include prawns, lobsters, bêche-de-mer, seaweeds, sea shells and aquarium fish. The common freshwater species are Tilapia, catfishes, sardines “dagaa”/“kapenta” (Limnothrissa, Stolothrissa, Engraulicyprus) Lates, Hydrocynus, Luciolates, Dinopterus and Protopterus.

4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC PATTERN OF SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE

All land belongs to the State under the Government's policy of “Socialism and self-reliance”. People are advised to live together in villages where they can easily be provided with the essential requirements which include schools, hospitals, water, etc. Approximately 90% of the population lives in these rural areas.

Each village has acquired enough land to meet the requirements of the families living there and extra to allow for population growth. The land is shared among the families, each one is given enough land for various development activities including fish-farming if so wished. The family does not lease this land and retains it as long as the property is utilized. This system also calls for the villages to have communal farms.

Most families carry out their activities with their own labour. However, it is not uncommon for families to hire labourers from their villages or outside. Negotiations will be between the labourer and the family and payment goes directly to him. If labour is hired through the village authority the money paid will go to the village account.

In addition to agriculture, some villages rear domestic animals, such as, cows, goats, sheep and pigs. In a number of villages one may find only a few ducks but chickens are common to most of them. Although it has not been a common practice to integrate aquaculture with these systems, it is now in the development plans to popularize it as one method to increase production. However, integration with animals, like pigs, may be difficult in some areas because of religious belief Other systems like fish-cum-duck and vegetable gardens may be introduced into such villages.

The whole family participate in aquacultural production. After the farmwork the women continue with other domestic activities - cooking, looking after the children, cleaning, etc., while the men may rest or choose to do other minor work.

Where grazing is necessary for domestic animals men are responsible while women, in addition to their other domestic activities, clean the sheds.

Fish-pond construction is commonly done by men, and the women participate in the management practices particularly feeding and fertilization.

Different subsistence and cash crops are grown in different regions of the country because of environmental and climatical requirements. The main subsistenc crops are maize, millet, rice, cassava, potatoes, beans and bananas. The major cash crops are cotton, coffee, sisal and tea.

5. SOCIO-ECONOMICS OF RURAL POPULATION IN GENERAL

(a) Family Structure

About 90% of the population lives in the rural areas in some 8 400 villages. The extended family system dominates rural life. Under the current economic situation, the extended family life which also provided social security to individual members, is gradually breaking down and giving way to smaller size family units.

(b) Main Economic and/or Subsistence Activities

Agriculture is the leading sector of economy in Tanzania. The majority of rural producers are smallholders who cultivate on average 2.5 ha. Recent studies carried out in Tanzania on participation of women in agricultural production reveal that about 77% of the agriculture labour force is supplied by women who account for 52% of the total population in Tanzania. Staple foods comprise maize, rice, sorghum, beans, cassava, potatoes, bananas and different types of fruits. Women also play a significant role in ethnic groupings that are traditionally pastoralist. Recent innovation in livestock keeping, which has given rise to the introduction of exotic cattle, has increasingly resulted in the involvement of women in dairy cattle rearing. Export crops include such items as coffee, tea, cloves, cotton, cashewnuts, copra, cardamon, sisal and others. Mineral deposits that are exploited include coal, diamonds, gold, kaolin and kaolinic clays, and gypsum. These minerals are either exported or utilized as inputs into local industries.

(c) Ownership and Access to Land

In Tanzania land belongs to the Government. However, individuals can acquire access to ownership of land through legally constituted committees. Thus, it is assumed that all persons have equal rights to ownership of land (in accordance with statutory law). In effect, with traditional hereditary systems or customary law women do not have rights to own land.

(d) Employment, Un-or Underemployment

The agriculture sector accounts for the major employment of the rural population. However, productivity of both labour and land has continued to remain at low levels because of limited technical innovations. This creates a situation of underemployment. In certain regions of Tanzania, through community development programmes, communities have participated in the formulation of community-based projects. People have thus managed to create job opportunities ranging from agriculture and animal-rearing to small-scale industries.

(e) Formal and Non-Formal Organization

The Government of the United Republic of Tanzania has jurisdiction over the Tanzania mainland; while the Revolutionary Government in Zanzibar has jurisdiction over the Isles. There are also local government systems organized around the urban and rural (district) councils. Parastatal organizations carry out different economic activities. Non-Government Organizations feature in different social development programmes.

(f) Education Levels

Tanzania has embarked on a programme of universal primary education which has enabled all children of the age of seven to attend school. The secondary and post-secondary education have not been able to keep up with increasing rate of enrolment in both primary and secondary education. There is also national adult education which has been successful in increasing the literacy rate to 85%. Education policy has continued to give greater emphasis to technical education.

(g) Income Levels

The average growth rate of the economy between 1979 and 1983 was about 0.1% per year. In 1984 and 1985, the economy grew at 2.5% and 2.3% respectively. Given the population growth rate of 3.3% per year real incomes per head have declined. In 1984 per caput income was estimated at $US 240 which makes Tanzania one of the least developed countries.

(h) Nutrition Status

Pregnant as well as lactating women, and children in age group 0–3 years have suffered most from malnutrition. The most severely affected are children 0–3 years who account for about 50% to 70% of malnutrition cases.

6. GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION AND INSTITUTIONS FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

The Director of Fisheries is the Head of the Fisheries Department. He has a support staff who deal with various matters concerning fisheries development, of which aquaculture is one. Most extension staff are posted to the Districts and Regions. They prepare aquaculture development plans for the Districts or Regions and also help in formulating aquaculture projects from village to regional levels. Some projects, especially those at village level, are carried out immediately because funding is not their pre-requisite. Where funding is necessary the proposal will be presented to the Regional Development Fund. Under the Community Development Programme various projects are identified for financial support from local or external sources. Even though aquaculture does not commonly feature in such plans, it is believed that it will be included under the integrated system.

The District and Regional Development Projects are channelled through the District and Regional Development Committees and, if considered favourably, they will be funded by the Prime Minister's Office through the normal Government Budget.

The National Aquaculture Development Plans and Projects are prepared by the Fisheries Headquarters. Proposed National Development Projects are scrutinized at departmental and ministerial levels before they are forwarded to the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning from where they will be submitted for the final Government budget procedure.

7. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND PLANS FOR SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

In the fisheries policy statements it is clearly stipulated that:

• aquaculture will be encouraged and developed and specifically integrated aquaculture - fish-cum-ducks/pigs and vegetable gardens

• the Regional Aquaculture Centre in Port Harcourt, Nigeria will be utilized for information research findings, training of aquaculturists and other extensionists basically for development of aquaculture in rural areas

• efforts will be made to obtain and maintain correct aquaculture records and statistics so that the subsequent development plans may be prepared on a more realistic basis.

Aquaculture development activities are based on the Five-Year Development Plan. Phases I and II of the Plan, intended for 1987/88 and 1988/89 financial years, will mainly aim at completing the National Pilot-Scale Fish-Farm which was started in 1980 with UNDP/FAO assistance but not completed.

Depending on the success of Phases I and II, the Plan for 1989/90 will include intensive breeding and quality seed production of endemic and exotic fish species and distribution to fish-farmers.

Although integrated aquaculture will have been introduced to a number of villages, 1990/91 is scheduled for the popularization of integrated fish-cum-ducks/pig culture in rural areas.

The pilot-scale farm will be expanded for commercial production of fingerlings, table fish, meat/pork and vegetables.

A feasibility study on the potential for brackishwater and mariculture operations will be carried out in 1991/92 and, based on its findings, plans will be prepared to establish a saltwater aquaculture pilot-scale farm.

Other ongoing projects based in the Regions were:

1. Hombolo Fish Culture Development Programme. This programme is set up under the Anglican Church, Church of the Province of Tanzania based in Dodoma.

   The project has a hatchery unit with a few tanks on a recirculatory system. There are also a number of “Peking” ducks. The project has been responsible for distribution of fingerlings and ducklings to various villages and regional ponds. The main species is Oreochromis niloticus imported from Kenya, and mirror carp imported from Sterling University, Scotland, UK.

2. Integrated Fish-Farming Project: This is run by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania Synod in Arusha. Under this project O. niloticus were imported from Kenya and stocked in ponds in selected villages in Hanang District. When they reproduced, fingerlings were available for distribution to other villages. A number of villages have now been given fingerlings of this species. The project will, during its second phase, introduce integration with animal husbandry.

8. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND PLANS FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

(a) Policy Statements

In order to reconstruct the economy which has performed poorly in the recent past, the Government formulated the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) in 1986, with the following main objectives:

• to provide a solid foundation of sustained growth, increase the welfare of the broad mass of the population and to increase GDP at an average rate of 4.5% between 1986 and 1991

• to increase production of food and cash crops through appropriate incentives, improved marketing structure and increased resources available to agriculture with emphasis on raising the productivity of smallholder agriculture

• to rehabilitate the physical infrastructure of the economy such as transport and communications, energy and water to facilitate and improve the performance of directly productive activities

• to promote capacity utilization in industry and agriculture and to increase productivity in all economic sectors. To this effect the level of capacity utilization will be increased from 20–30% to 60–70% by the end of ERP

• to improve and restore external/internal balances by sound fiscal, monetary and trade policies

• to improve social services, particularly health and education as basic necessities for a productive population

• to complete ongoing projects in order to avoid capital losses and maximize return on the use of scarce resources.

The programme aims at the reconstruction of the economy with a view to increasing the efficiency of resource use and expanding the country's import capacity. The Economic Recovery Programme is designed with the objective to rationalize capital costs and improve productivity of small agricultural holdings which account for 80% of agricultural production and 46% of total GDP. The ERP and its strategic objectives are supported by an appropriate macro-economic policy framework in order to maximize the improvement of economic performance, provide adequate incentives for production and reduce the gap between the demand for and supply of domestic and imported commodities as well as to reduce inflation.

(b) Development Plans

Investment will be directed to the development of agriculture, natural resources and services that contribute directly to export promotion, removal of bottlenecks and increased efficiency of the productive sectors and services. The Government intends to further liberalize the economy and enhance private sector participation in economic activities.

(c) Ongoing Planned Projects and Programmes

The agricultural programmes and policies of the ERP are directed towards halting the decline of export crops while sustaining the increased production of food crops. The production of food will have to be accelerated by the establishment of a fully integrated institutional framework capable of providing increased inputs (fertilizer, pesticides, seeds), farm implements and support services to farmers.

With regard to export crops, an investment rehabilitation programme has been prepared for each major export crop and the foreign retention scheme now in full force will enable exporters to obtain the required foreign exchange for rehabilitation purposes. At the same time, the Government has accorded priority to the strengthening of cooperative unions to provide a framework in which the supply and distribution of farm inputs can be effectively organized.

The proposed investments under ERP will be concentrated on the activities which have the highest return on resources with particular emphasis on the recovery of export crops and smallholder agriculture.

9. PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS FOR DEVELOPMENT

Prospects for aquaculture development in Tanzania are considerable and positive aspects are at the moment seen clearly, the main ones being:

• integration with other systems of food production and income generation

• availability of suitable land and water

• support services: there is at least one trained Fisheries Extension Officer at district level for all the districts.

The main constraints for aquaculture which may eventually be overcome are:

• Priority: Aquaculture is given lower development priority than agriculture and animal husbandry.

• Credit facilities: No loans are provided for an aquaculture project.

• Lack of fish seed of the correct species.

Appendix 7
AQUACULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN MOZAMBIQUE

by

D.D. Nhapulo, Fishculture Technician

1. INTRODUCTION

Mozambique is endowed with vast bodies of water and fishery resources. It has 12 000 km of rivers, 1 300 lakes, 12 dams, about 600 big and small reservoirs, and a shoreline of 2 470 km.

It is believed that fish-culture was introduced in Mozambique in the 1950s. Its development into an established farming enterprise has been slow. In spite of the slow development, however, there have been some remarkable achievements between 1950 and 1970, e.g., the establishment of the three fish-culture stations in strategic provinces in Maputo (Umbeluzi fish culture station), Gaza (Lionde fish-culture station) and in Manica (Chizizira fish-culture station). The product of the three fish-culture stations was used for stocking private ponds, dams, rivers and reservoirs. Unfortunately, with 30 years of fish-culture experience nothing has been recorded as to the production capacity, fingerling production and related information.

Before independence, fish-culture was practised and reactivated by a small group of white agriculture farmers, religious missions (mainly in the south) and a few enterpreneurs (in the north) for relief, as the area is suffering from food shortage especially on the large tea and sisal plantations.

After independence, efforts to develop fish-culture started again in 1979 with the rehabilitation of the existing fish-culture stations, with financial support from MONAP (Mozambican Nordic Agriculture Programme).

Presently, the Fish Culture Department of the Ministry of Agriculture operates and manages the three fish-culture stations. The main functions of the stations are to produce fingerlings for stocking and serve as demonstration/training centres. From now on they are also planning to produce table-size fish. A steady and active dissemination of fish-culture practices with the integration of agri-farming into the rural communities, particularly within the vicinity of the stations, is being carried out and gaining in popularity.

2. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE

The seven fish-culture stations, all owned and run by Government or state farms have a total water surface area of 11 ha. They form the bulk of the fish ponds in the country. Around the fish-culture stations there is a higher number of fish ponds owned by cooperatives and small farmholders. These fish ponds have a surface area of between 50 and 600 m², the total area being estimated at about 5 ha. There also exist a number of fish-ponds, scattered throughout the country, not yet recuperated and not under production.

The total production of aquaculture in 1987 is estimated at 18 t of fish. This low figure is not only due to the small number of fish-ponds but also to the fact that almost all the fish-culture stations were only built or put under proper management in 1986 or 1987. Productivity of fish-ponds owned by smallholders and cooperatives is probably low (800–1 300 kg/ha/year) in general, but in at least one cooperative the production reached more than 4 000 kg/ha/year.

A few brackishwater ponds in the Maputo area produce about 1 600 kg/ha/year. In the freshwater fish-ponds managed by Government the results vary between 1 800 and 5 600 kg/ha/year. It is stressed that all the production figures, except for those of the fish-culture stations, are estimates.

The scarcity of food in Mozambique does not permit the utilization of high quality feed for fish production. The only feed and fertilizer used is manure. Feeding of the herbivorous species like Tilapia rendalli with green terrestrial plants (e.g., leaves of banana and papaya trees) is only in an experimental phase. The main species for fish-culture is Oreochromis mossambicus. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and Tilapia rendalli are also important. The highest productions are obtained with a polyculture of O. mossambicus while common carp, O. niloticus, has only recently been introduced.

It is expected that O. niloticus will give considerably better results than O. mossambicus, but until now there have been no production trials. In the near future also catfish (Clarias gariepinus) will play a role in Mozambican aquaculture as the predator of tilapia to control overpopulation.

Both pig manure and duck manure give good results, although production figures of ponds fertilized with pig manure seem to be slightly higher.

Because of the shortage of both types of manure the potential of other types of fertilizers needs to be investigated. On a fish farm in Chokwe area with cattle, trials are being carried out with cow dung.

In the cooperative and smallholder sector, fish-culture is carried out on a subsistence level. Sporadically fingerlings are sold to other fish-culturists. The bigger fish-farms started to produce fish for the market in 1986. Only a small part of this fish was sold as fingerlings (O. mossambicus and common carp) for stocking ponds of neighbouring smallholders and cooperatives. The main part of fish was sold for consumption directly to the public. Because of the rising production costs this system has now had to be abandoned. Selling fish in the countryside is a time-consuming business which needs proper organization, although, with the current high prices of meat and food shortages, fish is a product which is easy to sell. Even higher quantities of fish (up to 500 kg/day) could be sold without needing storage facilities.

It is not possible to give correct data on the economics of fish-farming, since it is not yet a well established practice. Estimates of the economics of a 1-ha pond fertilized with pig manure and stocked with O. mossambicus and common carp are given below:

Costs of pond construction have not been included.

Credit is needed to continue the activities of the existing fish-culture stations and to start up others. Since the main task of the stations will be promoting fish-culture in the neighbouring areas, equipment (material for transporting fish, balances, etc.) and transport (car, motorbicycle, etc.) are needed. Because of the very limited number of well trained national fish culturists, extension workers must also be trained.

The fish-culture programme of Mozambique is completely financed by the Ministry of Agriculture. This forms part of MONAP (Mozambican Nordic Agriculture Programme) and this is also the only source of foreign currency. The fish-culture annual cost estimates for the coming years are:

3. STATUS OF SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES

Fishing is categorized according to the type of fishing gear used, size and type of boats and the technology applied.

Small-scale fisheries is distinguished from the industrial fisheries by the employment of boats smaller than 20 m and by onboard chilling capacity and the distance and depth of operation.

The small-scale fisheries are further subdivided according to the parameters of the boats, propulsion and the gear utilized. On the basis of these criteria, Mozambican administrators distinguished two types of small-scale fisheries: semi-industrial operated with engine-powered boats 10–18 m long, usually equipped for bottom trawling and gillnetting with icing facilities and artisanal, with oar-powered canoe or non-motorized sailing boat less than 10 m long.

The results of the study conducted by Krantz in 1986 (Nordic support to the fishery sector in Mozambique) show that there are about 43 300 people directly involved in fishing with 3 600 bigger boats and approximately 15 750 canoes.

In the southern area, the main fishing gears used are beach-seine floating gillnets, osier baskets (“gamboa”), fish traps and bottom gillnets. In the northern part of the country circular seines, “chohiho” beach-seine, handlines, floating gillnets, osier baskets, fish cages (“cargo”), and a mixture of circular seine and beach nets are commonly used.

The major species of fish and other fishery products are shrimps, sharks, keleem shad, small anchovy, scad, thryssa, pellona, tuna, other small and larger pelagic fish, spiny lobsters, crabs, octopus, squid, cuttlefish and others.

Accurate data on the yearly catches in small-scale fisheries are not available. The system of collecting statistics through labour activities was abolished after independence, due to lack of staff. An attempt to resume the data collection from the small-scale fisheries (marine) was made in 1981. In that year the estimated catch of fish amounted to approximately 22 000 t of which 18 000 t are reported as catch by artisanal fishermen. It is estimated that the annual catch from artisanal fisheries (registered and unregistered) is now in the vicinity of 40 000 t.

4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC PATTERNS OF SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE

Because of the small significance of aquaculture in Mozambique no systematic studies on socio-economic aspects have been carried out. In the Maputo area most fish ponds belong to agricultural cooperatives. Others are owned by smallholders, a factory and a small private entrepreneur.

The work at the ponds is done by members of the cooperative or the family of the owner. Hired labour is rare, except for the State-owned fish-farms. Although much of the agricultural work is done by women, men still play the most important role in fish-culture. It is expected that this pattern will change once fish-culture becomes a common part of the rural economy.

As already mentioned, fish-culture in Mozambique can only be expanded if a source of manure is available. Thus, integration with animal husbandry is an important and imperative condition. Using fish-culture products (for example pond mud in horticulture or small fish for feeding animals) is not yet customary.

All fish-culture production of the family and cooperative sector is at a subsistence level. Only horticulture is a significant source of cash in the areas with fish-culture. Fish produced is used to enrich the diet. Income levels will thus not differ from those of the rest of the rural society.

5. SOCIO-ECONOMICS OF RURAL POPULATIONS

Mozambique is basically an agricultural country. About 69% of the 14 million population is working in agriculture. In 1980, of the 4.7 million workers in agriculture, only 4.7% were wage-earners. Agriculture constitutes the basic sector of the national economy, representing about 40% of the Gross National Product. Agricultural products (forestry and fisheries included) constituted about 78% of the total exports in 1984.

Family size ranges between 4.5 and 5. Many men in the age range 15–40 years from the southern and middle parts of the country are working in neighbouring States. The rest of the family (mostly women and children) is usually working in the fields cultivating food crops such as maize, rice, beans, cassava, sweet potatoes and groundnuts. This subsistence farming is carried out with low inputs, using handtools and, in some cases, animal traction. The mean area cultivated by a family ranges from 0.6 ha (Zambezia Province) to 1.6 ha (Gaza Province). The relatively low surplus production is used to barter for products like soap, sugar, agricultural tools and clothes.

Mozambique has about 15 million ha of arable land of which 10–20% is under cultivation. Unirrigated land has always been easily accessible for the community and nowadays also the greater part of the irrigated land is distributed to the family and cooperative sectors. In the last few years the exploitation of the land is highly reduced because of the drought and the massive action of armed bandits.

Cooperatives and also associations of smallholders or agricultural families (for example to optimize the use of tractors and animal traction) are common organizations. They are receiving aid from Government and some international aid agencies (mostly Non-Governmental Organizations).

The illiteracy rate is 72%, 59% in men and 85% in women. Only 3 600 persons have an academic degree and 17 000 a secondary level diploma. The educational level in the countryside is slightly lower than these figures indicate.

Due to the drought and actions of armed bandits the agriculture production did not produce sufficiently to meet the food requirements. Areas with irrigated agriculture still have a surplus food production. In 1987 the food needs of more than 50% of the population had to be met from external sources.

6. GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION AND INSTITUTIONS FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

The Department of Fish Culture is incorporated in the Directorate of Animal Husbandry of the Ministry of Agriculture.

Mussel culture experiments are carried out by the Institute for Fisheries Research (IIP) in Maputo.

7. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND PLANS FOR SMALL-SCALE AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

The Government of Mozambique gives emphasis to the development of fish-culture, shown by the fact that more than 50% of the surface of all the fish-ponds of the country are managed by Government. In the official paper prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture for the SADCC meeting in Harare in 1986 objectives were formulated for the next five years:

1. to improve the food supply of the whole population, reducing significantly the actual shortages in cereals, leguminosae and oleaginosae.

2. to augment the availability of sources of protein, increasing the animal production which does not require external means of food or food that competes with human alimentation and promoting fish-culture.

The goals of fish-culture as formulated by the Department of Fish Culture for the years 1987–1990 are:

• to contribute to the constant national efforts towards self-sufficiency as regards the fish food requirements and thereby reduce the needs for imports

• to increase the amount of protein in the diet, and diversify food varieties of the rural population currently least favoured by the fish food distribution channels

• to initiate and encourage associated farm production activities, thereby enhancing an integrated rural development process.

The plans for 1987–1990 stated in the same document are:

1. to consolidate, organize and develop the freshwater fish-farming activity in Mozambique into a national activity, administratively decentralized at the provincial level, but with a central technical direction and support by the Department of Fish Culture at the Ministry of Agriculture

2. to consolidate and augment the available local experience and adjust the international fish-culture technical know-how to the Mozambican environment and disseminate it to the target population.

The programme for the near future is:

1. Development of the three fish-culture stations in Umbeluzi (Maputo Province), Lionde and Conhane (both Gaza Province) as centres for rural fish-culture development to provide technical support, fingerlings and other inputs to interested clients.

2. Demonstration units at each station for integrated fish-culture (pig-cum-fish and/or duck-cum-fish).

3. Rehabilitation of the fish-culture station in Chizizira (Manica Province).

4. An in-service training programme for national project staff at various levels on fish-farming management techniques.

5. Applied research related to:

   • maximization of the production of tilapia and tilapia/carp polyculture

   • optimization of the use of the manure available as food and fertilizers

Besides freshwater fish-culture the following other aquaculture activities can be mentioned:

• brackishwater fish-culture (Matola, Maputo Province)

• mussel culture (in experimental phase)

8. GOVERNMENT POLICY AND PLANS FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT

It is imperative that agricultural production be increased in Mozambique. This is necessary both for improving the nutritional status of the rural population and for reducing the country's dependence on basic food imports.

Any significant increase in the national food supply must be based on increased production in the peasant sector given its dominance in the overall rural economy.

The National Directorate of Rural Development (DDR) of the Ministry of Agriculture coordinates all projects in the field of rural development. More than 40 projects are being implemented; most of them receive foreign aid, beside support from DDR.

According to a SADCC paper of the Ministry of Agriculture one of the main objectives of agricultural development is: “Promoting a balanced development on national and regional level, improving the living conditions in the countryside and reducing the migration to the cities and neighbouring country”.

In this first phase priority will be given to:

• Districts where it is easy to stimulate agricultural potential

• Districts which are most affected by drought, bandit activity and the present economic crisis.

9. PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS FOR DEVELOPMENT

The three main positive aspects are:

1. The possible production of fish-culture in Mozambique is high. Even with the local available Oreochromis mossambicus, yields reached up to 2 000 kg/ha/year of adult fish with an additional 3 500 kg of fingerlings in one of the first trials, using only pig manure as fish food fertilizer.

2. Mozambique is a country with massive aquatic resources. It has 1 300 lakes covering 7 556 km² and also 31 rivers. The basins of these rivers cover 90% of the territory of the country.

3. The Government of Mozambique is interested in fish-culture and gives it a high priority. It also seems to be quite easy to disseminate fish-culture activities to the local population once it is convinced of the possible profits, although the costs of investment are seriously hindering a rapid adaptation in the family sector.

The main constraints are:

1. The lack of skilled fish-culturists at all levels. Training programmes are an absolute pre-requisite for fish culture development.

2. Development of fish-culture in a country without such a tradition is a long-term process which still needs several years of technical and financial assistance.

3. Animal husbandry is, due to the economic crisis, suffering from a lack of high quality food. In the very near future, the limited availability of pig and duck manure will seriously hinder the expansion of fish-culture.