3. PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

3.1 Husbandry Practices

3.1.1 Mating

Generally speaking, there is no control over mating and the rams are with the ewes all year around. This practice has been confirmed by Ismaili (1983) in Tadla, by Narjisse et al. (1984) in the high Atlas and by Assal (1978) in the middle Atlas. This practice is dictated by climatic variability and the resulting risk of concentrating lambing at a given period. In addition, the permanent presence of rams in the herds can allow a second lambing for those ewes that had already had an earlier lambing.

This system has however several disavantages. In fact, It is a major constraints to the application of sound husbandry practices because of the great demographic heterogeneity of the herd. Moreover, since males and females are mixed together, there is no control over mating and therefore no selection scheme could be implemented. More recently however some control over mating has been practised by some large livestock owners who separate the rams from the herd in order to avoid lambing in the winter and hence the resulting high mortality risk.

The number of ewes per ram varies greatly from 10 to 64 in the middle Atlas (Narjisse, 1987) and 10 to 79 in Tadla (Ismaili, 1983). A significant proportion of the herds reaching 18 percent in Tadla (Ismaili, 1983) have no ram at all. These are generally small-size herds which are mated with by rams borrowed from neighbours or relatives. With regard to ram selection, this is done primarily on the basis of phenotypic criteria. Fertility, growth performance and quality and quantity of wool are seldom taken into consideration. Another common reproductive problem is low fertility. In a recent survey, it was found that out of 217 rams checked, 22 percent were found to be sterile (Project 608-0145, 1986). The major reproductive problems identified were low sperm motility and cryptorchidism.

3.1.2 Lambing

As a consequence of the permanent presence of males in the herds, lambing occurs all year round. A national survey implemented in 1975 reported however that 78 percent of lambing takes place between October and April. Regional differences are observed and result probably from differences in the breed's seasonal oestrus and seasonal cycle of forage availability. Although, no special care is given to lambs after their birth, they are usually kept indoors for the first weeks of their lives. During this period, they suckle their mothers at night and graze grain plots surrounding the house during the day. The litter size is rarely more than one, except for the D'Man and to some extent the Sardi breeds. The low litter size is generally an objective of the farmers who are not interested in high prolificacy because of the difficulties of raising more than one lamb resulting from low milk production and limited feed availability. Depending on the lambing period, the average weight at birth for the Timahdit breed varies from 2.3 to 3.2 kg (Naitlhou, 1988). Slightly higher lambing weights at birth are observed when lambing occurs during the spring season.

3.1.3 Weaning

Sheep production in Morocco is often under traditional and extensive conditions. There is therefore no set weaning of lambs who are left with the ewes until the latter are completely dried up. Such practice contributes to overgrazing and precludes creep feeding resulting in low growth performance. Hence, the liveweight generally reported at three months of age does not exceed 12 kg, although values of 18 to 23 kg were reported by Bouamar and Kansari (1988) under intensive conditions. On the other hand, the average rate of mortality between birth and three months of age is variable. A low rate ranging from three to seven percent was reported respectively by Bennouna (1980) and Ismaili (1983) in the Tadla region. A higher rate of 18 to 31 percent in the middle Atlas and 51 percent in the high Atlas was recorded respectively by Chami (1982) and Chaarani (1988). These mortalities are mostly caused by undernutrition and cold weather (Ismaili, 1983) and enterotoxemia, enteritis and septicaemia (Chaarani, 1988).

Lamb mortality is not uniform throughout the year. Chaarani (1988) observed that during 1985-86, mortality was 34 percent during the December-February period, while it was only 10 and 12 percent during the autumn and spring season, respectively. This confirms the critical role of cold weather and plane of nutrition in determining the rate of mortality.

3.1.4 Shearing

Wool production is considered a by-product in the sheep industry in Morocco despite the large demand for quality wool stemming from the Moroccan carpet industry. Most of the shearing is performed in May or June when the temperatures are warm and when the demand for labour by other agricultural activities is low. Ram fleeces are generally heavier than those of ewes, the average being 2.4 kg and 1.5 kg respectively.

3.1.5 Fattening

Fattening in feedlot operations is limited to government farms or to some specialized livestock dealers that operate in the vicinity of large cities. Another circumstance where fattening is performed is the "religious mutton celebration" (A�d El Adha). For this purpose many large livestock owners keep the male lambs of their herd and/or buy many thin males in the market and fatten them during a three to six month period. The animals to be fattened are never castrated for cultural and religious reasons. In fact, male animals are marketed with the testicles intact on the carcass because the demand and prices are higher for male than female animals. The feed usually used in this operation is composed of straw, beet pulp, wheat bran, barley and eventually oil-cake, urea or molasses. Performances achieved in these feedlots are variable depending mainly on the animal's age and the plane of nutrition. Hence, Naïtlhou (1988) undertook various fattening trials on Timahdit lambs and observed average daily gains ranging from 200 to 240 g/day depending on the feeding system. Meanwhile lambs of the same breed and age exhibited no more than 50 to 80 g/day when grazing was the only source of feed.

3.2 Production Systems

3.2.1 Pastoral System

Sheep production systems in Morocco are classified according to the type of feed resources. Among the prevailing production systems, the pastoral system is characterized by the predominance of forage resources from rangelands (over 50 percent of total feed resources). This production system relates to 36 percent of the sheep population in Morocco. In this system sheep spend from 8 to 12 months on the range and eventually either transhume or move to cropping land where they graze weedy fallow, and/or stubble and other crop residues. As far as sheep are concerned, two main geographical regions form the basis of the pastoral system in Morocco: the middle Atlas and the high plateau divided by the Moulouya basin.

3.2.1.1 Description of the pastoral system

The high plateau and the Moulouya basin are arid regions receiving from 100 to 250 mm rainfall per year. Sheep raising represents the main source of income in an area of approximately 50,000 km (Eres, 1971) where cropping activities are, to some extent, marginal. A population of 1 100 000 sheep of the Beni Guil breed in the high plateau and the Timahdit breed in the Moulouya basin relies primarily on rangelands for its nutrition with an average of 90 forage units per hectare per year of mainly Artemisia herba alba, Stipa tenacissima and Atripiex halimus in salty soils, in addition to Aristida ciliata in the Moulouya basin. Most of these rangelands are under a collective system, with grazing rights allocated to the tribes over often poorly delimited territories. Nomadism was common in this area following routes of water points and forage availability. This practice is however declining as a result of urbanization and mechanization. In the high plateau, while the irrigated land owned by the household is close to the house, rainfed cropland and grazing land usually lie at a considerable distance from the house. The herd is then supervized by a herder provided with a tent, while the owner's input consists primarily of regular visits to check on the status of the herd. A lack of 'forage is a major issue in this region as indicated by the persistent use of supplements. This is a consequence of the continuing degradation of rangeland and explains the common flock movements toward the western part of the country, especially during drought periods. Herd size in this region is usually low. ERES (1971) concluded that 30 percent of the herds is below 40 ewes. Sheep are in general in mixed herds with goats, although the latter are marginal in the region. Lamb fattening is a common practice in this area. Approximately one fourth of the producers fattens lambs to be sold before "A�d El Adha". The feed used in these feedlot operations are alfalfa hay grown in irrigated plots in addition to barley and straw.

The middle Atlas is totally different region. The elevation is higher, and the vegetation more diverse as a result of moister conditions. The native vegetation consists of various low shrubs such as Genista sp., Thymus sp. and Helianthus sp. in addition to perennial grasses such as Festuca sp., Dactyl is, Koelaria, etc. Productivity of these communities ranges from 250 to 400 forage units/ha/year depending on the site and climatic conditions. Agricultural activities include cereals and irrigated orchards in the valleys and an important sheep sector elsewhere. Approximately 75 percent of the area is either forest or rangelands (Projet Moyen Atlas, 1981). The forests are generally government property, while rangelands have a collective status. Transhumance is still alive in this region. Pastoralists move at the end of spring from the drier lowland to the higher mountain grassland and forests, Rangeland degradation and the resulting forage deficit is also a major concern in the middle Atlas. Prevailing stocking rates are estimated between 3 to 4 sheep/ha/year. Such stocking intensities exceed obviously the carrying capacity of these rangelands and explain their poor condition and the low productivity of the grazing animals mentioned earlier. The sheep population of this area is estimated at about 800 000 head most of which are of the Timahdit breed. In this area, the herd size is generally larger than reported in the high plateau reflecting better feeding conditions. Thus, only 35 percent of the herds are below 50 head, while 58 percent of the herds have a herd size between 50 and 300 and 70 percent are over 300 head (FA0, 1986).

Although husbandry practices generally remain traditional, some improvements are being noticed in terms of nutrition and health care as a result of various on—going development projects and the successful extension efforts implemented by the National Society of Sheep and Goats (Association Nationale Ovine et Caprine). The main purpose of this society, which was created in 1966, is to help its members to establish a selection programme and apply sound husbandry practices.

3.2.1.2 Feed Resources

Range forages have been the main source of feed in Morocco for centuries. Recently, following drought and the continuing degradation of land resources, the contribution of range forages has declined while those of stubble, straw, and supplements are increasing. A recent assessment study by FA0 (1986) concluded that the contribution of rangeland and cereal aftermath in meeting the nutritional requirements of sheep ranges respectively from 50 to 80 percent and 10 to 30 percent. Supplements contribute usually around 10 percent. In the high plateau, sheep herds are on the range almost all year round with a tendency to concentrate on Stipa tenacissima rangelands during cool and/or windy weather and to move to areas dominated by sagebrush from spring to late autumn. In this region, supplementation is regularly provided during the nutritionally deficient periods coinciding with summer and parts of the autumn and winter seasons. This supplementation consists generally of barley in addition to hay and straw imported from the neighbouring Sais plain or produced on irrigated plots. Supplementation levels remain however fairly low. The feed calendar in the middle Atlas is more complicated as a consequence of the ecological diversity of this region. It is usually organized as follows:

The rotation between lowland and highland ranges was strictly regulated by the community until recently. This management practice referred to as "agdal" allowed a rest period of all parts of the range and consequently contributed in maintaining range stability. Its implementation is unfortunately now facing difficulties related mainly to the conflicting interests of different members of the community in addition to disagreement in some cases over borderlines between neighbouring tribes. A comprehensive survey conducted in the Timahdit centre by the Livestock Office in 1982 indicated that range forages account for 58 percent of feed resources, while crop aftermath, fallow, and cultivated forages account for 32 percent. Supplements including barley, beet pulp, wheat bran and molasses cover only 10 percent of animal nutrient requirements. This supplementation is provided either to animals to be sold (lambs and old ewes) or to animals maintained on crop residues, and during the winter period.

An analysis of the feeding system prevailing in the pastoral system reveals the existence of three contrasting periods with variable duration depending on climatic conditions. From February to June range forages are available in adequate quality and quantity to meet the nutrient requirements of grazing animals. During the summer season, except when highland pastures are available (i.e. in the middle Atlas), only mature forages are provided by stubble, fallow and already overgrazed rangelands. In this case, the diet quality is low and rarely exceeds 45 percent digestibility and 6 percent crude protein. Such low diet quality occurring during the mating . period explains the low reproductive performance generally observed in the pastoral system. The third feeding sequence lasts from October to February. During this period, both quantity and quality of forage resources are deficient. Animals are then forced to survive on straw and scarce forage found on the rangeland. The use of supplements is general during this phase. Unfortunately, the amount is rarely sufficient and composition is usually inadequate.

3.2.1.3 Major production

Lamb is the major production of the pastoral system in Morocco. Of the total sheep meat produced in the country, approximately one third comes from the pastoral system. Within this system, the high plateau and the Moulouya contribute 12 percent, another 5 percent is provided by the middle Atlas region (FAO, 1986). There is no set age for lamb sales. For example, a comprehensive survey in the Timahdit area of the middle Atlas indicated that only 20 percent of the lambs sold were at an age less than six months, while lambs sold at ages between 6 and 12 months and 12 and 18 months represented 46 and 31 percent respectively (DPA Meknes, 1982). Milk production from ewes is marginal and totally allocated to self-consumption in Morocco. It is estimated that the proportion of sheep milk produced in the pastoral system represent 27 percent. Wool is considered a by-product of animal production. Its marketing is rare since the majority of the wool produced (except for the large producers) is kept for domestic use. The following table summarizes the levels of sheep performance in the pastoral system. It appears from this table that these performances are low and reflect the extensive nature of this system.

Indications on sheep performance in the pastoral system in Morocco

3.2.1.4 Constraints

Excess livestock and resultant overgrazing are major constraints to range rehabilitation and therefore to the improvement of the nutritional status of grazing sheep. These constraints are aggravated by the legal status of the rangelands which leads to the cultivation of these lands by the granting of rights as an attempt at privatization. The encroachment of cropping land into rangeland is in fact substantial (over 200 000 hectares in the high plateau during the last 20 years). It is causing a significant reduction of the area available for grazing and therefore leading to more grazing pressure on the land.

Other constraints are specific to poor livestock management which is reflected by the low productivity of the herd. Particular problems in sheep management and production relate to low quality breeding rams and the absence of mating control. This results in poor selection practices and a fraction of lamb births at periods when the mortality risk is high. The absence of selection and culling is well illustrated by the data collected through the range extension project (Project 608-0145). The staff of this project, rated over 40 percent of 3942 breeding animals examined, as inferior animals or as being incapable of reproduction. Further the absence of early weaning leads the producers to keep the animals on ranges longer than necessary. The lengthy period required for lambs to reach marketable weight contributes to overstocking and therefore degradation of the rangelands.

Deficient animal nutrition, especially outside of the growing season, is a critical problem encountered in the pastoral system. The low nutritional status of the animals is reflected by the significant weight losses (over 30 percent in some years) and consequently a decrease in reproductive capacity.

Animal health care is also a problem facing the development of the sheep sector in Morocco. Parasite control is usually ineffective because of the producer's insufficient knowledge concerning the right drug to be used and the right timing of animal treatment. The ineffectiveness of animal health care is aggravated by the lack of dissemination to all producers and the usually inadequate disinfection of corrals.

Finally, the present organization of the market does not provide enough incentive for the intensification of sheep production. The existence of a number of intermediary agents and the low price of meat in Morocco contribute to lowering the returns generated from sheep raising.

3.2.2 Agro-pastoral System

This is the main system prevailing in areas producing cereals and legumes for human and animal consumption in Morocco: Gharb, Doukkala, Chaouia, Abda, Sais, Taounate, Khemisset and other irrigated districts (except the Ziz and Draa valleys). Since cereals occupy more than 60 percent of total cultivated land, this system is probably the most important sheep production system in the country. The 1984 data show that cereal producing zones in Morocco contain about 70 percent of the total sheep population (ANPA-ANAPPAV, 1985). This figure clearly illustrates how animal and cereal production is closely related at the national and regional levels.

In this system, farm agriculture provides a major part of the total feed requirements of the flock. This Includes cereal by-products such as straw and stubble, early barley grazing, weeds, fallow, cereal and legume grains, cultivated forages, other by-products etc. Various amounts of feeds can be bought on the market. The contribution of rangeland can be very limited in some cases and much more important in others.

The objective in terms of the feeding calendar in this system is to feed the ewe all the year around with minimum cost feed. This explains why poor quality feed like straw and stubble are largely used. High quality feed such as cultivated forages and grains are used in very small amounts and distributed to ewes during critical periods, i.e. end of pregnancy and/or early lactation. Lambs are very rarely supplemented. Consequently, animals eventhough sold at ages from 6 to 12 months, produce a low carcass weight.

Because in the agropastoral system animals depend heavily on farm production for their feed, flock movements in the cereal-producing zones are usually very limited. This is unlike the pastoral system where nomadism and transhumance are common practices.

3.2.2.1 Description of the system

Two cases are presented to illustrate the sheep feeding calendars under the agropastoral system:

a) Haute Chaouia

The Haute Chaouia area is considered as one of the largest rainfed areas in Morocco producing cereals. Average farm size was estimated in 1980 as 8.12 ha varying between 0.4 and more than 100 ha (Benatya, Pascon and Zagdouni, 1983). The soils of the area differ as follows:

In a survey carried out in 1984-85, it was found that 56 percent of total lambing in the area occurs between September and February. Lambs born are called Bekri which means early; the remaining lambs, called Mazouzi which means late, are born between April and June (Khaldoun, 1986).

The feeding calendar for sheep (and cattle) has been surveyed for 14 farms and divided into three periods (Khaldoun, 1986):

Regarding this last period, it was noted that in areas where there is no range, all farmers fatten lambs regardless of farm size and flock size. On the contrary, when the rangeland area becomes more important, large flocks are not fattened. There seems to be more interest in preparing lambs of small flocks for A�d El Kebir when more concentrate is bought.

b) Tadla

The Tadla district is one of the oldest and largest irrigated districts in Morocco with more than 100 000 ha of irrigated land surrounded by 190 000 ha of rainfed agriculture. The average rainfall between 1958 and 1986 was 335 mm/year; extremes vary from 150 to 600 mm/year.

In the irrigated zone, cereals represent 38 percent of cultivated land while forages occupy 14 percent; the remainder is used to produce mainly sugar beet, cotton and citrus. In the rainfed area, 77 percent of cultivated land is used for cereals. The main forage species are alfalfa, berseem and barley.

Small farms dominate in the irrigated area: 82 percent of farms have less than 5 ha.

A survey of 75 farms distributed in 3 locations in Tadla was conducted recently by Bouhafra (1987). About 60 percent of farmers were raising sheep with an average flock size of 32.4 ewes/farmer; 41 percent of flocks had less than 20 ewes, while only 12 percent had more than 60.

Survey data indicated a feeding calendar with three periods (Figure 3.1):

Figure.3.1 Sheep feeding calendar in Tadla(Bouhafra.1987)

3.2.2.2 Major feeds

a) Stubble

Throughout Morocco, utilization of stubble by sheep starts immediately after the cereal harvest (May and June) and continues until September or October.

In dryland areas, stubble is used as "vaine pâture" which means that all species and all flocks belonging to a community (i.e. a village) can graze at the same time all cereal fields belonging to the community. A farmer alone therefore has no input either on stocking rate or on period of grazing. However, there is a tendency now in many areas (like Fès for example), at least for large size farms, for stubble to be grazed only by animals belonging to that farm. Another new technique adopted by farmers in areas like Abda and Chaouia consists in renting stubble after manual or mechanical harvesting of grains in order to maximize straw yields. On the other hand, in irrigated areas, the "vaine pâture" system has not been practised for many years (example of Tadla - Bouhafra, 1987).

Stubble grazing and the mating season very often start at the same time. Grain residues and weeds which remain with the stubble can be a good feed resource for flushing ewes. However, quantity and quality of the available biomass decrease quickly and lead to undernutrition. Problems augment in September and October when the nutrient requirements of ewes increase with the end of gestation. Straw supplementation starts usually at this period. In the Gharb (non-irrigated), farmers seem to feed straw to sheep all the year around (ORMVAG, 1985). However, the percentage of farmers feeding straw starts to increase in September. The same trend has been reported in Tadla and Haute Chaouia.

b) Fallow

Fallow is still important in Morocco, especially in the cereal producing zones. Although figures are very contradictory, many authors agree that fallow occupies about 25 percent of total cultivated land in the country (MARA and FAO, 1986). In 1980-81, fallow represented 18 percent of total cultivated land in Gharb (ORMVAG, 1985); higher percentages were noticed in the non-irrigated zones in comparison to those irrigated. In three locations of Tadla, fallow represented in 1986 only 6.7 percent of total cultivated land (Bouhafra, 1987).

The importance of fallow is partly correlated to flock size and alternative feed resources. In Haute Chaouia, it has been noted for example that sheep are the main species grazing fallow (Khaldoun, 1986); a correlation of 0.76 has been calculated between hectares of fallow and number of head of sheep within farms. Other factors like soil fertility, cereal seed availability and drought can also interfere with fallow size.

In 1985, the Ministry of Agriculture introduced several Australian species of Medicago in dryland areas in substitution of fallow in the cereal-fallow rotation. The success of this operation can dramatically change the sheep feeding calendar and productivity in rainfed zones.

Another change reported recently in Haute Chaouia (Khaldoun, 1986) is hay production from fallow. Hay produced in spring is preserved until winter. Whether this hay is fed to sheep or only to cattle was not specified.

c) Cultivated forages

One of the most striking observations concerning the sheep feeding calendar in irrigated areas is that cultivated forages are very rarely fed to sheep (except for areas of D'Man sheep). In the irrigated district of Gharb for example, only 4 percent of farmers feed berseem (the most important forage of the area) to sheep (ORMVAG, 1985). In Tadla, figures presented previously indicate that alfalfa hay is rarely fed to ewes; fresh alfalfa is distributed to dairy cows only.

The same situation has been reported in the Meknès and Tanger zones where vetch and oat hay (the main hay produced in rainfed areas) are almost absent in the sheep diet (Guessous, 1985).

The almost complete absence of cultivated forages in the sheep diet can be related to the very low forage area in Morocco (280 000 ha in 1983-84, corresponding to 3.6 percent of total cultivated land). Another reason is that farmers consider it more profitable to use cultivated forages for dairy cows than for suckling ewes.

3.2.2.3 Major products

Lambs and wool are the two main sheep products in the agropastoral system. No indication of milk production from ewes either for family consumption or for the market has been reported so far.

a) Lambs

- Age and weight

The objective so far has been to produce lambs that can be directly slaughtered. Such animals will usually average between 6 and 12 months of age and 20 to 30 kg of weight.

Data collected in Tadla by Bouhafra (1987) present a better idea on the distribution of lambs sold by age and sex; figures include lambs born on farms and those bought from outside and prepared for A�d El Kebir. Table 3.1 indicates that males and females represent 60 and 40 percent of animals sold respectively. Among these, 68 percent are between 4 and 9 months old; 25 percent are between 9 and 12 months and only 7 percent are over 1 year. This distribution clearly indicates that lambs are not sold during the suckling phase which usually ends at 4 months of age. Because of their low average daily gain (ADG), lambs must be kept longer on farms in order to reach a better weight. Part of this weight increase will be achieved during the fattening phase (2 to 3 months) when lambs are to be sold at A�d El Kebir.

- Season

Lambs in Tadla are sold throughout the year with a maximum of 41 percent during A�d El Kebir (Bouhafra, 1987). Similar results have been reported in Haute Chaouia where a large percentage of young animals is sold in April-May and during A�d El Kebir (Khaldoun, 1986).

The selling period of young animals is dictated by:

Table 3.1 Proportion by sex and age of lambs sold in Tadla

(Bouhafra, 1987)

b) Wool

Sheep shearing is usually done between April and June. However, in the southern part of the country where higher temperatures start earlier, sheep shearing is done in February-March.

Average wool production per ewe has been estimated at 2.5 kg/year (Jerrari, 1987). Only two-thirds of the wool produced is marketed; the remainder is used for family needs.

3.2.2.4 Major constraints

The main feeding problems in this system usually occur between September and February. In autumn, the contribution of stubble to the sheep diet is very low not only in terms of quantity of available biomass but also in terms of nutritive value. Sheep requirements increase rapidly due to advancing pregnancy and beginning of lactation. The contribution of straw to the sheep diet becomes more important. Because of low levels of supplementation, deficiencies in energy and nitrogen can be severe and lead to low birth weights and low average daily gains of lambs born in October-November (Bekri). When animals start to go on pastures and/or fallow in January, their nutritional conditions improve progressively. Lambs can be marketed starting in March-April.

The situation differs for lambs that are born in spring (Mazouzi). Lambing occurs between February and April when the nutrition of ewes should be correct. However, with the decline of grass production and quality in April-May, lamb growth is rapidly reduced. Mazouzi lambs are consequently marketed at an advanced age and lower liveweight in comparison to Bekri lambs. Ewe body conditions can also be affected which may lead to unsuccessful breeding during the following summer. This situation stresses the need for adequate supplementation of both the ewe and lamb during the spring season. Otherwise, it may be more profitable to have just one good lamb crop per ewe and per year.

3.2.3 Oasis system

This is a specific system, entirely located in the Moroccan oases, mainly Ziz and Draa, but also in other small ones (Goulmima, Tinjdad and Figuig). This system differs from others in several ways:

3.2.3.1 Description of the system

The feeding calendar indicates two contrasting periods (Figures 3.2 and 3.3):

Figure3.2 Sheep feeding calendar in Ziz (Khiar,1987)

Figure. 3.3 Sheep feeding calendar in Draa (Khiar,1982)

3.2.3.2 Major feeds

a) Alfalfa

Fresh alfalfa

Alfalfa is the major feed available for sheep in the oasis. Arif (1978) calculated that this forage alone provides 50 percent of the total energy requirements of sheep during a year.

A survey conducted in 1980 in the Ziz valley indicated that farmers harvest alfalfa 5 to 7 times per year between March and October (A�t Blhi, 1981). Under research station conditions, 8 cuts per year have been achieved (Guessous, Igmoullan and Johnson, 1986). The management and quality of alfalfa production were investigated in 1983 in a survey conducted in the Ziz valley (Guessous et al., 1985). Alfalfa was sampled on 10 farms once a month between April and November. Alfalfa production per year can be very high; average yield per cut varies with season from between 13 and 19 tons of green matter/ha. Data collected also indicated that:

Alfalfa hay

A survey conducted in 1982 in the Ziz valley indicated that 65 percent of farmers produce alfalfa hay (Igmoullan, 1982). Hay is made during summer when the alfalfa rate of growth is at its maximum. It is stored until winter; 40 percent of farmers feed long hay alone while 60 percent chop it manually and mix it with straw.

Although green alfalfa is cut at an advanced stage of maturity, alfalfa hay produced in these areas seems to have a good nutritive value. Analyses of 25 samples indicate average crude protein and crude fibre contents of 16.9 and 27.4 percent respectively (dry matter basis). (Guessous et al., 1985).

Table 3.2: Frequency of stages of alfalfa maturity at harvest
in the Ziz valley (%)

(Guessous et al., 1985)

b) Waste palm dates

Palm dates are an important source of income for oasis farmers. In Draa, there are about 1.9x10⁶ palm trees that produce between 7 000 and 55 000 tons of palm dates per year (Ezzahiri and El Maghraoui, 1985). Some of these dates, of very poor quality, are used as feed. The percentage of waste dates depends on varieties and ranges between 4 and 100 percent (Khal, 1982).

Waste palm dates are usually sun dried before being stored. They can be fed to animals intact or after grinding. Seeds can also be fed but must be ground previously. Until recently this operation was done manually but grinders have now been introduced, particularly in farmer cooperatives.

Both ewes and fattening lambs can benefit from these by-products. Survey data indicate that fattening lambs can consume as much as 1 kg of whole dates or 0.7 kg of ground seeds per day (Khal, 1982) which are often fed in addition to alfalfa (fresh or dried).

3.2.3.3 Major products

As in the agropastoral system, lambs and wool are the two major sheep products in the oasis system. However, wool contributes little since the D'Man fleece is less developed than that of other breeds.

Khiar (1987) has found that among 100 lambs born in Ziz farms:

This distribution represents the major difference compared to the agropastoral situation. The primary objective of sheep husbandry under oasis conditions seems to be to provide farmers with animal proteins needed for the family. On the other hand, in the cereal-producing zones, animals slaughtered on farms represent a small fraction (10 percent of females in Tadla (Bouhafra, 1987) and the percentage of lambs born that are marketed has much more importance.

No indication exists concerning season of marketing and weight of lambs sold.

3.2.3.4 Constraints

Feed availability and quality seem to be the first constraints under this system. Because alfalfa dominates the sheep feeding calendar in these areas, improving its management, productivity and utilization can have a significant impact on sheep production. In fact, much should be done to improve alfalfa management in oasis zones. Several parameters including seed varieties, nature and level of fertilization, water supply, insect control, etc. should be considered and the rate of cutting should be investigated. Quality of forage at harvest in relation to stage of maturity and season must be stressed. This is particularly important when alfalfa is destined to high producing females (pregnant ewes with more than one foetus, suckling ewes). Improving alfalfa management will increase its yield and will allow farmers to preserve more hay for the winter period.

Waste palm dates represent the second most important feed in the area. However, farmers do not seem to be sufficiently aware of their nutritional characteristics. Extension programmes should be developed to explain these aspects to farmers and to teach them how to balance diets based on these by-products.

3.3 Sheep productivity

Several attempts have been made to measure sheep productivity under field conditions and in experimental stations in Morocco. This includes measurement of parameters concerning reproduction, mortality and growth. Since experimental stations are usually under improved flock management, particularly regarding nutritional aspects, productivity measured at experimental stations can be considered as an indicator of potential productivity of breeds. On the other hand, field data, although usually less accurate, can be considered as giving a better estimate of actual sheep productivity. The data presented in this chapter will therefore be based on the latter.

3.3.1 Reproduction performance

Ewe fertility (number of pregnant ewes per number of ewes joined) is relatively high when the summer breeding season is considered alone (Table 3.3). Average fertility ranges from 80 to 95 percent regardless of area, breed or system of production. However, fertility drops quickly during dry years as reported in the eastern part of Morocco in 1969-70.

Table 3.3: Reproductive performance of sheep under different production systems

Ewe fertility during the autumn breeding season has not been well documented so far. However, with the exception of the D'Man which can breed all the year around without significant changes in fertility, other breeds are thought to present a low fertility in the autumn, not exceeding 40 percent even during rainy years. This figure is in agreement with the low number of lambs produced per ewe per year 1.3 in Tadla, (Ismaili, 1983). It is also in agreement with an average interval between lambings that usually varies between 9 and 12 months (Table 3.4).

Prolificacy (number of lambs born per number of ewes lambing) under field conditions is very low, nearly 100 percent, except for the D'Man breed where much higher levels are represented (Table 3.3). Very small variation exists among areas and/or systems of production. This clearly indicates that apart from the oasis system, which is an intensive one, farmers have so far not sought multiple birth ewes.

3.3.2 Lamb mortality

Lamb mortality at birth and during the first 3 months of age ranges between 4 and 16 percent (Table 3.5). Higher levels are found in mountain areas where one third to one half of the lamb crop can be lost during winter.

A large variation can occur within the same area. In Tadla for example, lamb mortality ranged from 0 to 30 percent with a mean of 14 percent (Bouhafra, 1987). Mortality was higher in small flocks.

In the middle Atlas area, mortality between birth and 11 months of age was 17.6 and 31.3 percent respectively in 1984-85 and 1985-86 (Chaarani, 1988). Extremes varied from 7.2 to 72.1 percent. A large variation occurred among farms and years; 50 percent of lamb mortality occurred within the first 3 days after birth. Hyponutrition was listed as the first cause of death, responsible for 25 percent of lamb deaths in 1984-85 and 45 percent in 1985-86. Other reasons were infectious diseases (enteritis, septlceamia, pneumonia, etc.).

3.3.3 Growth performance

Growth data presented in Table 3.6 indicate a significant difference
between two breeds:

1. High Atlas and anti-Atlas mountain breeds. Lamb growth during the first 3 months is very low (average weight at that age is less than 9 kg). These breeds have a low mature weight (20 to 30 kg for ewes) at nearly three years of age. Such sheep dominate in most areas of Morocco where rangelands have very low levels of productivity.
2. Breeds located in the plains, plateau and the middle Atlas. These are early maturing breeds. Average birth weight is about 3 kg; average weight at 3 months varies between 12 and 19 kg. Mature size is much higher than for previous breeds (40 to 50 kg for a ewe). Most of the agropastoral and a large portion of the pastoral areas are dominated by such breeds.

Table 3.4: Interval between lambings under different production systems

Table 3.5: Lamb mortality at birth and until 90 days under different production systems

Table 3.6: Average lamb weight at birth, 30, 60 and 90 days of age under different production systems

Comparison between growth performance at field level and at experimental stations for the same breeds (see chapter concerning breeds) clearly shows the gaps that do exist between actual and potential performance of sheep in Morocco. Such differences are mainly related to management which needs to be largely improved.

3.3.4 Overall productivity

Numerous studies have calculated an overall productivity of sheep as growth weight per ewe and per year. This parameter takes into account performance concerning reproduction, mortality, growth, age of lambs at selling, culling percentage, etc.

Average liveweight produced per ewe is around 10 to 12 kg per year (Table 3.7). Sheep productivity seems to be the same for all regions of the country except in 3 areas:

A large proportion of lambs are fattened before they are marketed which increases production of liveweight per lamb. Bouhafra (1987) reported an average weight of males of 17.6, 26.9 and 28.6 kg at 4, 8 and 10 months of age respectively.

This example clearly illustrates how sheep productivity can be rapidly improved if lambs before marketing could be fattened for a short period of time and produce a higher carcass weight.

Table 3.7: Sheep productivity under different production systems