E.P. Cunningham1
1 Introduction
The livestock sector is responsible for over half of the output of agriculture in the developed world. In developing countries as a whole, calculated on a similar basis, it is responsible for a quarter of output. This proportion is growing. In addition, when account is taken of the non-commercial contributions of livestock, such as work, fuel and manure, livestock are responsible for almost half of the output of agriculture (FAO, 1991). Furthermore, in many countries with large pastoral resources, livestock are the mainstay of the economy.
All this is simply to restate the fundamental importance of livestock resources for the future agricultural and economic development of these countries.
In the short evolution of agricultural systems, covering somewhat less then 10,000 years, surprisingly few animal species have been drawn into domestication. Evidence from the earliest human settlements (Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza, 1984) indicate that the same species have been used from the start: sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, buffaloes. Though other species (camelidae, rabbits) are locally important, practically all of world animal agriculture can be accounted for by less than 20 mammalian and avian species. These are a small subset of the 40,000 known vertebrate species (including 4,000 mammalian and 9,000 avian).
Despite this narrow species range, the animals used in agriculture represent an enormous breadth of biological diversity. Much of this is undoubtedly due to the fact that, with the spread of settled agriculture to all sectors of the globe, specialized and adapted strains from each species have evolved for a very wide range of environmental conditions.
1 Director, Animal Production and Health Division, FAO, Rome, Italy 00100.
This great pool of diversity is now under threat. As development proceeds, livestock agriculture moves from subsistence into commercial farming systems. Production objectives become more specialized, and competitive pressures increase. The effect of this process can be seen in Europe, where of the surviving 737 distinct breeds of farm livestock, one third are in danger of extinction (Maijala et al, 1984). In these countries, an awareness of the potential value of the threatened breeds has been combined with the necessary resources in most cases to put in place a variety of conservation programmes. In the developing countries, particularly in Asia and Africa, the development process is less far advanced, and a much higher proportion of the historical pool of variability survives. However, here too economic pressures are having the same effect. This is particularly true in some cattle breeds, where artificial insemination permits very rapid change in existing populations. It is also the case in pigs and poultry where easy introduction of developed breeds has facilitated widespread replacement of local stock.
2 Conserve or develop ?
It is clear that the depletion of genetic resources is a consequence of economic change and development. Is there therefore an inevitable conflict between the desire to conserve the present variety of genetic resources on one hand, and the need to concentrate increasingly on a narrow range of genotypes in the interests of more efficient production? To a certain extent there is. Because of the competitive nature of livestock farming, it is clear that, in certain circumstances, more productive individuals, strains or breeds will tend to replace less productive ones. However, this drive is tempered by three main factors. In the first place, production circumstances and market requirements vary so much throughout the world that a variety of breeds and types is needed within any one species. Secondly, in any one set of production and market conditions, requirements change over time. This is well illustrated by dramatic shifts in European dairy cattle objectives in the last 20 years, first from dual purpose to specialized dairy types, and then, in the wake of market saturation and quotas, from milk and butterfat production to protein and management traits. The third element can be called the insurance factor. While short-term trends in livestock farming systems are evident, we cannot accurately envisage requirements more than a few decades into the future. Furthermore, the actual genetic patrimony of most breeds and strains in the world has only been observed at the most superficial level. There may well be genes and gene combinations of great value but at this stage totally unknown. For these reasons, it is no more than prudent to ensure that the breadth of genetic resources which have survived to the present time are conserved against future possible utility.
3 FAO's programmes
Animal genetic resources have been part of the FAO programme since the establishment of the organization, but a significant new approach was taken during the last decade following a Technical Consultation in Rome in June 1980. The approach was further developed by an FAO/UNEP Expert Consultation, held in Lomé. The programme was initiated in 1982, and was supported financially by the FAO Regular Programme and UNEP funds. During the period 1982–90 a large programme of work, based on the recommendations of the 1980 Expert Consultation, has been implemented. The methodologies for a global programme for animal genetic resources have been researched and defined and the necessary infrastructures have been established. The work has been documented in a series of publications in the FAO Animal Production and Health Paper series. In addition, the initiatives taken by the European Association for Animal Production (EAAP) have been supported, and an effective collaboration has been established on the use of their database and associated computer system.
The current programme addresses the needs of both development and conservation in different parts of the world. An example of a former is the nuclear selection scheme in Awassi sheep in Turkey, aimed at increasing productivity of an important Middle Eastern breed in situ. An example of conservation activities is the recently published major inventory of livestock resources of the USSR. More than 30 field projects addressing problems of development or conservation of Animal Genetic Resources throughout the developing world are at present in progress.
In 1989 a major review of the programme in this area was carried out, and the groundwork has now been laid for a new global programme on Animal Genetic Resources. It has the following five main elements.
3.1 Global Inventory of AGR and World Watch List.
Initially the global inventory will be prepared in its simplest form, essentially describing each breed, its effective population size and a limited set of key production parameters. A first edition will be published at end of year 1. Over the life span of the project the data inputs to the inventory will be expanded such that by the end of the project a comprehensive Global Inventory of AGR will be established and published, and a permanent data base established.
Based on the data collected for the Global Inventory a World Watch List will be published at regular intervals focusing attention on those breed populations considered to be at risk. The attention focussed on particular breeds will enable national governments to take action to preserve threatened breeds and to seek technical assistance where necessary.
3.2 Breed Preservation
As and when threatened breed populations are identified and if, following detailed evaluation, the breed is considered to have genetic uniqueness, preservation plans will be drawn up. The preservation strategy will be country specific, and may involve semen or embryo collection and storage or in-situ preservation. Priority will be given to utilizing in-country facilities such as National AI Centres and Government farms. Regional gene banks will evolve to the extent that they are justified on cost benefit analysis.
Many countries throughout the developing world have placed their indigenous livestock populations at risk through programmes of exotic breed importation and/or crossbreeding. Rarely has adequate attention been given to evaluating and setting realistic and optimum breeding objectives (goals) prior to embarking on breed improvement programmes. Mistaken objectives are sometime then followed by breed improvement schemes which are totally inappropriate to the existing or available infrastructures. It is proposed to assist selected member states in the planning and initiation of realistic breeding strategies so as to avoid inappropriate breed replacement/dilution programmes.
The intention is to link any such activities in developing countries to parallel technical programmes in the developed world.
3.3 Indigenous Breed Development/Conservation Programmes.
The genetic improvement of selected indigenous breeds is a major objective of this programme. In many cases, a local breed which remains static in the face of competition and changing requirements will not survive. Breed improvement programmes, tailored to fit the conditions in which the breeds are farmed, will therefore be planned and implemented. A total of 12 unique populations have been identified for attention in the first phase of what will be a five year programme. These have been selected on the basis of their regional importance and genetic uniqueness and are listed below:
| SPECIES | ASIA | AFRICA | SOUTH AMERICA |
| Cattle | Sahiwal | N'Dama Kenana | Criollo Guzera |
| Sheep | Awassi | Djallonke | Pelibuey |
| Goats | Zaraby | ||
| Buffalo | Murrah | - | - |
| Pig | Taihu | - | - |
| Camelidae | - | - | Alpaca |
The breed improvement programmes developed for each of these populations will vary from case to case. However, they will share common methodologies, e.g. based on the Genetic Screening/Open Nucleus Breeding Strategy. Participating country inputs will be substantial, including physical infrastructure, feed inputs and operational costs. In a second phase of this project an additional cohort of indigenous breeds will be singled out for development.
3.4 Gene Technology/Genome Mapping.
The economics of germplasm preservation could be made significantly cheaper if it were demonstrated that many breeds shared a common DNA heritage. DNA level studies may enable geneticists to categorise breeds in terms of ‘genetic distance’ and in this way to sharpen the scientific rigour with which breeds should be selected for preservation. Furthermore, genome mapping may eventually lead to the isolation of DNA segments that code for particular traits, eg., trypanotolerance. This would revolutionise the overall approach to genetic resource preservation. It could also have a dramatic effect on the cost of preservation or use of genetic resources. A venture research fund is being proposed to stimulate, coordinate and guide particular lines of research, which in the longer term, may lead to new and more efficient mechanisms for the conservation of animal biodiversity.
3.5 Legal and International Framework
As in the plant world, but with significant differences, there is a growing need for a framework of internationally agreed conventions to protect legitimate rights and to guide and regulate access to the world's animal genetic resources. As part of the overall programme, the development of the necessary legal and regulatory instruments is being undertaken.
4 References
FAO (1991). Livestock Production and Health for Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development. FAO/Netherlands Conference on Agriculture and The Environment, Background Document No. 3, Rome.
Ammerman, A.J., and Cavalli-Sforza, L.L.(1984). The Neolithic Transition and The Genetics of Populations in Europe. Princeton, New Jersey.
Maijala, K., Cherekaev, A.V., Devillard, J.-M., Reklewski, Z., Rognoni, G., Simon, D.L., Steane, D.E. (1984). Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources in Europe. Final Report of an E.A.A.P. Working Pary. Livest. Prod. Sci. 11, 3–22. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.
J. Hodges1
1 Introduction2
1.1 Purpose of paper
This is the second background paper prepared by the same author for the Expert Consultation. The first entitled “Review of past and present activities and prospects for the future” reviews the present situation and the events leading to it; it is found earlier in this volume. It concludes that there is an international consensus on the need to design and rapidly to implement a global programme for the conservation and improved use of animal genetic resources. The paper recognizes that in the developed world national and, in places, sub-regional programmes are already in place. The main objective of the proposed worldwide approach is, in broad terms, to provide support for animal genetic resources in developing countries at the grass roots level. But experience has shown that most national programmes need technical and economic support from regional and global infrastructures.
Linkages between developing and developed regions are greatly advantageous in the use of shared infrastructures like information systems and in the application of the new biotechnologies and breeding methods. There are also common interests in the availability of animal genetic resources from different environments for the improvement of animal agriculture. Such factors are basic to the extensive discussions and trials which have taken place during recent years and which have resulted in a unanimous call by governments of both developing and developed countries in the forum of the FAO Committee on Agriculture (COAG) for a new global programme for animal genetic resources.
1 Weissenstein 8, A-5730 Mittersill, Austria.
1.2 Proposed global conservation programme
The proposed global conservation programme has several objectives:
To bring together the urgent need for the development of animal agriculture and the imperative of conserving the biological diversity of indigenous livestock and poultry breeds in developing countries. Pursuit of either alone is unbalanced and in the longer term would not serve humanity well. Together they make sense for the present and the future, both for developing and developed regions.
To establish national government policies and local practices which recognize animal genetic resources as an essential and integrated component of biological diversity in the natural environment and as a major resource of sustainable agriculture.
To enable national governments in developing countries to work together in those aspects of the conservation and use of animal genetic resources in which they have common interests and which are amenable to joint action.
To provide a model of national action in a few countries with critical situations and breeds which are at high risk; then progressively to extend the programme to all developing countries.
To provide essential regional and global infrastructures to support national and sub-regional activities.
To bring together the common interests and different contributions of developing and developed countries and regions in a worldwide programme for the conservation and improved use of animal genetic resources.
To enable international bodies and organizations, NGOs, regional groups and bilateral agencies which have interests in and commitments to the conservation and improved use of animal genetic resources in developing regions to cooperate together in a united, directional programme.
2 Component activities of a global programme
Each of the identified components of the global programme is given a separate section consisting of two paragraphs. The first paragraph provides succinct information to focus the topic; the second paragraph lists the issues for discussion. It may be noted that these are, on the whole, organizational, since technical aspects of these issues are already known in most cases.
2.1 Preservation of germplasm and DNA
(a) Cryogenic preservation of semen and embryos has been recommended as the basic
method for use in developing countries, supplemented by DNA storage taken from blood.
(b) It has also been recommended that regional cryogenic gene banks with at least two
centres in different countries should be established in each developing region to serve the
countries of the region. Agreements have been made with Ethiopia and Senegal (Africa);
China and India (Asia); and Argentina, Brazil and Mexico (Latin America and the
Caribbean).
(c) The concept of regional facilities for such storage has been shown by FAO during earlier field trials to have many advantages over a larger number of national cryogenic stores. These advantages include technical skills, management, animal health controls, long-term security and finance. Many developing country governments have indicated to FAO during field trials and in inter-governmental discussions that they want cryogenic facilities to be available but do not wish to have their own.
2.1.1 Issues for discussion
• Should cryogenic storage of germplasm be the prime means of preservation in developing countries ?
• Should preference be given to semen, ova, embryos or all?
• Are regional animal gene banks for cryogenic storage of semen, ova and embryos the most appropriate way to preserve breeds in the long term ?
• Is DNA storage an acceptable alternative to cryogenic storage of germplasm, since it so much cheaper and easier in practice ?
2.2 Breeding herds or flocks
(a) Although technically, the maintenance of breeding herds or flocks has been seen as an equally valid method with cryogenic storage under certain circumstances and although technical recommendations seek to encourage both methods, within FAO's programmes live animal populations have so far been given lower priority for technical and financial support.
(b) Some developing countries have live animal populations of threatened breeds. For example, Argentina and Brazil hold special herds of Criollo. China and India have herds of some of their threatened breeds.
(c) It has been recommended that FAO develop a technical manual to aid developing countries in this activity.
(d) It has also been recommended that when countries establish live populations, the cryogenic storage of germplasm should also be practiced for security reasons.
2.2.1 Issues for discussion
• Is the maintenance of breeding herds or flocks an option to be included for financial support to governments in a global programme ?
• Are there certain domestic species for which the maintenance of breeding herds or flocks should be the preferred technique ?
• Should breeding herds or flocks be maintained in situ, that is in the original site where animals remain in local ownership, or should farm park type facilities be created where animals are brought together ?
• Are the minority species and micro livestock special candidates for breeding herds or flocks ?
• What recommendations and support for the breeding of captive populations should be offered to governments and other groups maintaining live animal herds ?
• Should FAO encourage governments to make live domestic animal populations more available to the public ? Or should FAO encourage other organizations to be involved in this type of activity ?
• Is a manual needed on techniques and issues for maintenance of domestic breeding herds or flocks? What topics should be included ?
•Is there need for a global list of live domestic animals populations, farm parks, preserved herds etc ? If so who should prepare it ?
2.3 Existing animal genetic data banks
(a) There are several main centres where animal genetic data is held: the major ones which service one or more regions are: EAAP/FAO Hannover, FAO Rome, ILCA Africa and Kasetsart University, Buffalo. The Hannover and FAO banks use compatible software.
(b) The Hannover bank holds mainly European information. The new FAO data bank brings data from FAO publications and reports mainly on developing countries.
(c) The ILCA data base should be a rich source of regional information on Africa. It holds microfilm copies of published and, more important, unpublished reports on all livestock subjects from the files, archives and libraries of many African governments. It will be necessary to extract the animal genetic resources information.
(d) There are other animal data banks; for example, the data base held at Maracay University, Venezuela and the sheep data base at Utah, USA.
(e) A prime task is to make all this data accessible for identification of breeds which need special attention. This will include the rationalization of systems and of the existing data; the identification of breeds, environments and animal management systems from which additional data is needed; and the analyses of data to support valid decision making on conservation and utilization programmes. A further output from the data handling activity will be creation of a World Watch List for animal genetic resources.
(f) Another task will be making the coordinated data available to users throughout the world.
(g) Much of the information scanning, input and analyses must be done by specialists who are competent both in computer systems and in animal genetics.
2.3.1 Issues for discussion
• Is a global animal genetic data bank needed ?
• Should it be a separate entity from the existing data facilities ?
• How should the flow of data be organized taking account of local, national, regional, global and specialist species interests ?
• What assistance, if any, should be given to existing animal genetic data banks which are concerned with regional or species interests ?
2.4 Harvesting new information
(a) After existing data is unified and analyzed, gaps will be revealed and breeds identified that need new or upgraded data on their genetic characterizations and population sizes.
(b) Field collection of new and updated information will be a major task open to nationals of the countries on short-term bases. Students and UN volunteers will also be suitable to make field visits under the supervision of qualified animal geneticists who will verify the data.
2.4.1 Issues for discussion
• How should new information be obtained on breeds which are inadequately documented ?
• Is there need for a special mechanism to validate animal genetic data flowing from the field ? If so, how should it be organized ?
• Are special steps need to organize the collection of data on certain species or types of animals, for example, draught animals ?
• There are broadly two types of pig production in developing countries; the industrialized and the local scavenger systems. Should data from both be collection for animal genetic data banks ?
• Is there merit is setting up special data banks for certain species - for example the camelidae species or the domestic rodent species ?
• Should recognized crossbred types be included in animal genetic data banks ?
2.5 World watch list
(a) An early warning list, to be known as the World Watch List, will be issued to governments warning them of breeds which are already threatened or are moving towards that state. This alert will permit anticipatory action to avoid the loss of the breed. The list will be updated periodically and reissued. Associated with the list will be the recommended means and resources to take preventative action.
(b) Political boundaries rarely coincide with breed distributions. One of the valuable benefits of a World watch List will be the opportunity to study breeds which occur in more than one country. In some cases, the same genetic makeup is known by different breed names in adjacent countries. In such cases it is clearly important to make accurate diagnoses of genotypes and threatened status before launching into the conservation of a national breed which exists in plenty elsewhere.
(c) Another type of inter country cooperation is illustrated by the trypanotolerant breeds of West and Central Africa. They are of great interest because of their genetic ability to tolerate trypanosomiasis. Several distinct breeds and even species exhibit this trait. It is the DNA coding for this trait which is of interest rather than the breeds themselves. It is not yet known whether there is one common DNA sequence across breeds and species which show this trait.
2.5.1 Issues for discussion
• Is there a case for the immediate publication of a World Watch List using available data, even though it would not be complete ?
• Should separate species lists be published, following for example the pattern of the IUCN Red Data Books ? If so, what priority order of species should be followed ?
• What additional information, advice or support should be published with the World Watch List ?
• Should special lists be prepared for each government to draw their attention to the breeds and species at risk in their country ?
• Should there be a comparable World Watch List of High Potential Indigenous Breeds for developing countries ? What type of information should it contain ?
• Which categories of risk assessment should be used in a World Watch List for domestic animals ?
• Is a World Watch List for minority species and micro livestock species required ? If so should FAO undertake it ?
2.6 Breed and species development strategies
(a) In the process of attempted improvement programmes through exotic breed importations and crossbreeding, indigenous germplasm has frequently been placed at risk. Rarely has adequate attention been given in advance to the design of the programme and to evaluation of its chances of success within the existing environment and infrastructures. Consequently, in the past, some inappropriate importations, failed or disappointing results and lost animals have resulted.
(b) In these cases the impact on the livestock producers lifestyle and on his animals has been deleterious and in some cases tragic. Support should be provided to assist governments and local communities in planning realistic breeding strategies to avoid inappropriate breed replacement and dilution programmes.
(c) When threatened breeds are identified and recognized as having unique genetic traits, conservation plans will be made available. These will be specific to a breed and will depend upon population size and demographic structure, on the rate of population change and anticipated use or neglect in the current economic situation. Conservation plans will also provide an evaluation of the options of cryogenic storage and the maintenance of breeding herds or flocks in the local circumstances and a long-term conservation plan for operation by the national government(s) concerned.
2.6.1 Issues for discussion
• What issues on Breed Development Strategies should be addressed ?
• Should these be published and training courses for governments and nationals of developing countries ?
• Should special strategies for conservation and improved use be designed and published for species with special characteristics, for example buffalo, camelidae, or minority species ?
• Similarly should special strategies for conservation and improved use be designed and published for breeds suited to certain products; for example milk production ? In such a case the target could be breeds like the Sahiwal, the Kenana and the Butana.
2.7 Indigenous breed selection/conservation plans
(a) Most indigenous breeds have the strong qualification that, although they may have more limited production than exotic breeds, they are well adapted to their local environments and management systems. The aims of increasing local animal products is not easily solved by the introduction of germplasm from elsewhere.
(b) Even when the intention is to combine the best qualities of local and introduced breeds into a new crossbred, the practical mechanisms are often formidable. Thus, there are attractions in increasing the performance merit of indigenous breeds by selection within the population.
(c) Once owners of indigenous livestock breeds see increased performance from their own animals, whether as more milk, meat, work, wool or reproductive traits, the attractions of crossbreeding diminishes. In this way also conservation and genetic improvement are combined.
2.7.1 Issues for discussion
• Is it a valid thesis to put before governments and small livestock producers, as a generalization, that indigenous breeds can be improved by pure bred means on a reasonable time frame ?
• Or, is this only true in certain cases; for example, when harsh environmental conditions make crossbreeding impossible ?
• Would it be desirable to make the situation more clear regarding the circumstances and species and breeds when it can be recommended that indigenous breeds can be kept purebred for over a long time frame and still remain economically viable ?
2.8 Methods of genetic improvement
(a) In the last five years new methods of genetic selection have been developed which theoretically offer equal or better rates of progress than the established methods and which also avoid many of the older organizational problems.
(b) They are Nucleus Breeding and Genetic Screening, which are now being tried with some success with purebred indigenous breeds in a number of developing countries cooperatively by FAO and national governments.
(c) Genetic improvement methods and plans need to be designed in ways which are not only friendly to the owner but also contribute to the maintenance of biological diversity and to the issues of sustainable agricultural development.
2.8.1 Issues for discussion
• Should special publicity be given to nucleus breeding and genetic screening for livestock improvement in developing countries ?
• Are these techniques applicable to certain species more than others ? If so which ?
• What are the needed steps for successful development of these techniques for use in developing countries ?
• What should be the recommended attitude towards the use of older methods of genetic improvement such as progeny testing and field production recording for use in developing countries ?
• Is there a case for preparing manuals on the new genetic improvement methods for different species, systems, environments or traits ? If so what is the species priority list ?
• Should FAO continue to offer and organize semen donations from developed to developing countries ? If so, under which terms ?
• Should FAO be involved in the supply of embryos to developing countries? Would it be advantageous to offer a technical and breeding advisory service, even though the embryos are part of a commercial contract between buyer and seller ?
• Is there need for organized exchange or supply of semen and embryos between developing countries using the known high potential breeds found in some parts of the tropics ?
2.9 Biotechnology
(a) Recommendations have been made regularly since the FAO/UNEP Technical Consultation in 1980, that FAO should keep a close watch on the developments in biotechnology, especially those concerned with molecular genetics and reproduction. This watch has been observed and clearly should be continued.
(b) Biotechnology has been seen as capable of new techniques for both preservation and for genetic improvement. The two are closely linked, for example, in the use of embryos for cryopreservation and for nucleus breeding plans.
(c) Special areas of reproductive technology which have been of special interest in recent times: vitrification as a simple, cheap and effective method for cryopreservation of embryos and oocytes; recovery of sperm and immature oocytes from animals at the end of their lives with subsequent in vitro maturation, fertilization and culture of zygotes; nuclear transfer for cloning of embryos; and sexing of sperm and embryos.
(d) Some areas of molecular genetics have been of special interest in recent times: genome mapping associated with estimation of genetic distance; creation of DNA libraries; collection, extraction and storage of body tissues, blood samples, specific chromosomes or pieces of chromosomes and of DNA for possible later use; techniques for the transfer of DNA with mammals involving embryos; and developments in transgenic animals.
2.9.1 Issues for discussion
• What areas of biotechnology are important for research and development in animal genetic resources in developing countries ?
• Which of these should be researched in developed countries and which are better researched and tested in the developing countries ?
• Is genome mapping of indigenous breeds an important topic within the long term plan of animal genetic resources ?
• If so, at what stage should genome mapping be started ?
• How can the global programme best prepare now for the possibility that genome libraries are likely one day to be of value and importance to animal genetic resources ?
• Is there merit in FAO developing further regional network projects for animal biotechnology on the Asian model which includes eight countries ? If so what should be the order of priority for topics for network research and development in national institutions ?
2.10 Training
(a) Programmes for training nationals at a variety of tasks will be needed, including aspects of genetics, reproduction, data handling, sampling of donor animals, handling of semen and embryos, animal health controls and computer systems. FAO has already designed and used training courses on these topics.
2.10.1 Issues for discussion
• What are the topic priorities for training ?
2.11 Poultry
(a) The great majority of economically important poultry stocks are now in the hands of a few multinational corporations.
(b) Economic considerations tend to override conservation efforts.
(c) Governments tend to opt out of breeding research and flock development.
(d) Poultry gene conservation by cryogenic means is not available.
2.11.1 Issues for discussion
• Should FAO attempt to establish national or international gene pools ?
• Is research into cryogenic preservation for poultry germplasm important ?
• Should poultry be included in animal genetic resources data banks systems ?
• Should the preservation of indigenous poultry stocks in developing countries by encouraged ? If so, how ?
2.12 National programmes
(a) It is important to recognize from the start of this new worldwide enterprise that the heart of the enterprise will be the national and local plans which the regional and global infrastructures are to support. The development of national animal genetic resources programmes by governments will be a foundation aspect of the global programme.
(b) National programmes should be developed first in specially chosen countries in each region. These countries should be chosen on the basis of their special needs and opportunities or because they have breeds which are close to extinction or have high potential breeds or both. For example, in Africa it may be appropriate to choose several countries which are representative of widely different environmental zones and have different types of animal genetic resources and management systems and which embrace both anglophone and francophone countries.
(c) A key activity of national programmes will be the design of breed management plans. This will include breed development strategy plans and indigenous selection/conservation programmes designed to the needs of individual breeds. It will involve skills at the technical, personnel, diplomatic and financial levels. For example, advice will be needed on appropriate animal genetic improvement methods which are not only friendly to the owner but also contribute to the maintenance of biological diversity and to the issues of sustainable agricultural development. Training will be necessary.
(d) Breed management plans will need regional coordination in some cases where breeds exist in more than one country.
2.12.1 Issues for discussion
• Which are candidate countries for starting national plans in each regions and for what reasons ?
2.13 Minority and micro animal species
(a) Just as the buffalo was long neglected by science and development but is now prominent in project and research programmes, there are other species which are usually overlooked. The Camelidae are often cited as neglected species.
(b) There are also several domesticated bovine species which are overlooked, such as the Banteng, Mithun, Yak, and various established hybrids such as the Yakows.
(c) The pig and associated species such as the Bearded Pig, Sulawesi Warty Pig Pigmy Hog, Javan Warty Pig and Babirusa are all extremely interesting both economically and scientifically.
(d) The rodent species offer a large number of domestic animals including the Agouti, Cabybara, Coypu, Giant Rat, Grasscutter, Guinea Pig, Hutia, Mara, Paca, Vizcacha and others. They are each capable of being proposed as candidates for preservation in view of their special use in minority cultures.
(e) Consideration of the deer and antelope families leads towards the wildlife species which are generally acknowledged to be more within the purview of other international organizations than FAO.
2.13.1 Issues for discussion
• Which minority and micro species should be included in the programme for preservation ?
• Should these species be included in the animal genetic data bank system ? If so, in specialized banks or generally ?
• Should genetic improvement programmes be developed for any of these minority and micro species ?
• What order of priority should be given to the Camelidae species for inclusion in the programme ?
• Is there need for a special programme to investigate and act in respect of any of these species ?
2.14 Wildlife
(a) Although wildlife are important in the FAO Forestry programme, it has not generally been seen as FAO's task to engage in their preservation.
(b) Wild bovine species include the Wild Banteng, Gaur, Kouprey, Tamaraw and Anoas which are also cited as serious candidates for organized preservation. They share much common genome with their domestic relatives and it is expected that they probably carry variants and polymorphisms which, later in the development of molecular genetics, will be of interest scientifically and economically.
(c) However, FAO has agreed with IUCN that the cryogenic gene banks should also be available for the storage of semen and embryos from wildlife.
2.14.1 Issues for discussion
• Should FAO take initiatives for the live preservation of wild animal species which are related to domestic species ? If so, should this be organized cooperatively with any other organizations ?
2.15 Animal diseases
(a) A principal interest is the transmission of animal disease through germplasm. It is of concern to FAO that germplasm stored in cryogenic gene banks be free of disease and that adequate documentation be available for future users.
(b) The possibilities of washing embryos and of ensuring their freedom from disease is an added attraction over the obvious genetic benefits of using embryos rather than semen.
(c) It is important to note that DNA is a chemical and is not biological tissue. It does not attract the interest of quarantine authorities at national borders.
2.15.1 Issues for discussion
• Are there any special research topics which need attention to overcome problems of animal health in conservation work ?
2.16 Research
(a) In general FAO has, in the past, become involved in supporting research only when it is critical for the application of specific development projects.
(b) FAO has nevertheless been highly active in taking research results and transferring them to developing countries.
(c) In addition, FAO provides support for the organization of research capabilities in developing countries. In recent years this has applied to the support of research and development in biotechnology of animal reproduction and molecular genetics.
2.16.1 Issues for discussion
• Are there new research areas or topics which FAO should monitor ?
3 National, regional and global levels of activity
The concept of a global programme has its roots and its results in the animal genetic resources of individual countries. Conservation and improved use of animal genetic resources at the livestock and farmer level is the goal. Regional and global levels of activity are called for only because experience shows that at the national level some services and systems would be expensive, fail to provide the needed support or be of limited value. In particular there are specific types of external support to be provided:
The differing activities to be undertaken by differing levels of the programme are outlined here as a basis for discussion.
3.1 National governments
(a) It is anticipated that within countries, governments will wish to establish an appropriate national infrastructure for animal genetic resources, which is capable of providing administrative, technical, financial and organizational support for a national programme. Some countries will need technical, financial, legislative and training assistance in starting and operating such national programmes. Governments should be encouraged to incorporate into this new structure the existing branches of government or other bodies, institutions, universities or other groups which have had traditional interests and activities in animal genetic resources.
(b) It may be appropriate for governments to establish national animal genetic resources consultative groups to provide support and advice to those responsible for activities.
(c) The national group responsible for the animal genetic resources programme will be expected to forge links with the appropriate regional and global centres for the flow of information, germplasm, participation in training courses, field programme design and breed development strategies.
(d) It is expected that regular lines of communications will be established between those responsible for animal genetic resources and certain government ministries responsible for allied fields. These will include the Ministries concerned with Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry, Ministries concerned with the Environment, Land and Rural Development and, depending upon the national situation, links with the Ministries responsible for Research and for Tourism.
(e) It is expected that national governments wishing to gain the benefits of the global programme will enter into agreements which define their financial and national staff inputs and their long term commitment to their own national animal genetic resources plan.
(f) Governments should be encouraged to review the current uses of their existing livestock centres to take advantage of the new methods of nucleus breeding and genetic screening.
(g) Inter-country cooperation will be needed for a variety of topics, including cryogenic storage, animal genetic resources data, training and research and development. Governments should be active in such regional programmes.
(h) Governments should encourage where possible, public interest and finance in the preservation of indigenous domestic animal breeds as reserves and farm parks.
3.2 Regional organization
(a) Regional activities, though established with external finance should be under the governance of a regional consultative group, which will regularly review the policies and activities of regional infrastructures and provide guidance to national governments.
(b) It is anticipated that regional cryogenic gene banks will be funded and become operative under the new programme.
(c) It is also anticipated that an information network will be created to coordinate the flow of information on animal genetic resources from national origins to various centres. It is possible that existing and newly created regional information centres could be linked electronically with the designated global centre.
3.3 Global organization
(a) Global infrastructures should be concerned with organization and support rather than the creation of new physical facilities.
(b) Nevertheless a recognized centre will be needed for the global planning and organization in support of regional and national activities. In the past this has been provided by FAO as part of the Regular Programme. It has been a very small group of staff, normally only two officers. This is inadequate to take organizational responsibility for a new global programme.
(c) A new approach to the organization of animal genetic resources information is needed. Rationalization of the existing animal genetic data banks and bases is needed to enable them to increase their effectiveness and value. A review of the types of data to be included will be relevant and should include for example, animal genetic and environmental characterizations, passport data, production data and populations structures. Other types of information should be considered, for example records of conserved cryogenic samples of semen and embryos. These records are most important for posterity and include sampling technique, donor animal profile and genetic status, health tests and control procedures, methods used for collection, processing, freezing and storage, and ownership records.
(d) The information associated with DNA libraries for domestic animal species is a new and important topic. Are separate information systems to grow for each species at locations where enthusiastic researchers are working, or should there be an early attempt to coordinate such information on a global basis ? This information and system will be particularly important for the animal genetic resources of developing countries.
(e) The facilities to be used as a global centre for animal genetic resources must be sufficient for several important functions. These would include:
3.4 Roles of FAO and other UN bodies, NGOs and bi-lateral agencies
3.4.1 Major organizations
It is proposed that the major organizations with experience and commitment to animal genetic resources in developing countries should be involved at some level in the project. Organizations with clear involvement include:
3.4.2 Rare Breeds International
A new NGO with special interest and ability to contribute is Rare Breeds International (RBI), which brings together the expertise, experience and enthusiasm of private organizations and individuals working with domestic animal conservation in 30 countries.
3.4.3 Global Environment Facility
It is considered vital that the project should be linked, not only philosophically but in reality, with the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) projects concerned with different components of biological diversity and the environment.
3.4.4 Issues for discussion
• Is FAO the appropriate organization to execute the new programme in the Management of Global Animal Genetic Resources? Why ?
• If FAO is not to be responsible for this programme, which body should be ?
• Are there special tasks which can be identified for specific organizations which have experience or skills ?
• What role and activities can Rare Breeds International play in the proposed new global programme ?
• Is there a need for a new international consultative group to act in an advisory capacity to the programme somewhat in the same way that the FAO/UNEP Joint Expert Panel served ?
• If so what should be included in the Terms of Reference of the consultative group ?
4 Finance, accountability and monitoring
(a) The FAO/UNEP programme on animal genetic resources over the last decade was initiated at the request of member governments of FAO and UNEP in 1980. The decade of work was reviewed and commended by member governments of FAO in 1989 in the COAG which is one of the FAO Governing Bodies. COAG also made recommendations for implementation on a global and regional scale in each of the developing regions. The FAO Council later confirmed this proposal. In 1991 the COAG again briefly reviewed animal genetic resources and restated its earlier view that action is both imperative and urgent. While the search for an appropriate pattern of organization and for funds is in progress, FAO and UNEP are meanwhile continuing to fund some activities in animal genetic resources in the expectation that they will be enlarged in the near future to the scale requested by governments.
(b) The outline of the global programme and its regional and national components have been described in this paper. It is considered that the financial budget needed to initiate this programme and to operate it for five years will amount to US$15 million. It is intended that at the end of the five years, infrastructures will have been established which will facilitate full cooperation between national governments and all other appropriate other organizations concerned with animal genetic resources. The anticipated global financial breakdown is given below:
(c) PROGRAMME COSTS FOR FIVE YEARS
| Global Direct Costs US $ | ||
| Global Animal Genetic Data Bank | 500,000 | |
| World Watch List | 250,000 | |
| Breed Preservation | 750,000 | |
| Strategic Breed Development Plans | 750,000 | |
| Indigenous Breed Selection/Conservation Programmes | 12,000,000 | |
| Gene Technology/Genome Mapping | 750,000 | |
| Total | 15,000,000 | |
(d) It is recognized that the budget will be most appropriately separated into components to serve the global and regional infrastructures and also components to be made available for national programmes within each region.
(e) Contributions of the involved governments are expected to include provision of physical plant, facilities and national personnel when appropriate. Other government contributions will be identified in the Project Document.
(f) It is considered that the Global Environment Facility (GEF) offers an almost unique opportunity to tie this implementation into a comprehensive approach with other aspects of biological diversity conservation, while also engaging the active involvement of the several bodies with experience and ongoing interest in animal genetic resources and sustainable agriculture of which it is part.
(g) Monitoring of the programme will be necessary at two levels. One will be scientific and the other, implementation. Both will be worked out in the agreement between the donor agency or agencies, the executing agency and the national governments involved.
4.0.1 Issues for discussion
• What factors should be taken into account when breaking the global budget into operational components ?
• Does the outline budget allocation by activities reflect the likely needs and opportunities ? If not what adjustments are proposed ?
5 Conclusion
This paper was presented at the start of the Expert Consultation, of which this volume is the proceedings. The Issues for Discussion listed in this paper were discussed during the Expert Consultation and the Recommendations which are found at the beginning of this volume may be regarded as the response of the Expert Consultation.
