Chapter 5
Characterization of livestock systems

Part II of the livestock productivity model (Figure 2.1) characterizes the livestock systems that are to be considered in assessing secondary productivity potentials. It defines, for three levels of inputs situations (or technology levels), the livestock types, production systems and herd structures.

Of the six types of livestock which are considered in the model, four are considered under pastoral as well as non-pastoral systems. They are: cattle, goat, sheep, camel. The remaining two, poultry and pig, are considered under intensive systems only and without explicitly defining the production systems at this stage in the model development.

Cattle, goat, sheep and camel systems are considered at three inputs levels. The attributes of the three inputs level production circumstances for non-pastoral systems are presented in Table 5. 1 and form the basis of the definition of the non-pastoral utilization types considered in the model.

For the pastoral systems, three types of cattle herds have been considered. These are: nomadic distant, nomadic with market access and semi-nomadic, representing respectively the low, intermediate and high level of inputs circumstances. For sheep and goat, two types of herds have been considered. These are: nomadic distant and semi-nomadic, representing respectively the low and high level of inputs circumstances. For camel, one herd type has been considered, representing the normal circumstances of production at a low level of inputs.

Herd structures have been defined in terms of number of heads of animal as well as in terms of reference Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU) defined as a mature animal weighing 250 kg (Houerou and Hoste 1977; Stotz 1983).

Livestock conversion factors for non-pastoral systems in areas with more than 120 days growing period are taken from Stotz (1983). Livestock conversion factors for pastoral systems in areas with less than 120 days growing period are taken from Houerou and Hoste (1977), and are:

TABLE 5.1
Attributes of the non-pastoral land utilization types considerd for livestock production

5.1 Cattle Systems: Dairy and Meat

At the tow level of technology, the systems are characterized by pure Zebu cattle (Stotz 1983). The feed supply is generally native Kikuyu/star grass pastures, and crop residue (maize stover). Cattle are grazed,herded or tethered during the day and kraaled during the night. Cattle are not supplied with concentrates or mineral supplements.

Calves join their dams during milking and for a short while afterwards, during which time they consume the remaining milk in the udder amounting to about 3 to 5 litres per day (400 litres total during the rearing period). Calves are weaned about 5 to 7 months old.

The animals are driven to water at rivers or reservoirs twice a day if nearby, otherwise once a day. Disease control measures are rarely practised, but cattle are compulsorily vaccinated against rinderpest and in some areas against foot and mouth disease.

At the intermediate technology level the cattle would be first generation crossbreds with exotic or high performing grade cattle bred with the help of artificial insemination. Crossbred cattle are generally acquired through upgrading local Zebu cows by Ayrshire, Friesian, Guernsey or Jersey bulls.

Cattle graze natural ley pastures (Kikuyu/star grass) and fields are usually fenced. With regards to feeding, young stock rearing and watering, the same husbandry practice is employed as for Zebu cattle. Crossbred cattle occasionally receive cattle salt, and cattle are regularly dipped or sprayed. Sick animals are treated.

Under the high inputs situations, the systems are based on exotic cattle, Friesian, Ayrshire, Guernsey or Jersey, which have been ‘graded’ up from the original crosses with indigenous cattle bred back to the exotic type.

Stotz (1983) describes these systems as charaterized by grade cows in a combined grazing/stall feeding system (semi-zero grazing) or complete stall feeding (zero grazing). In the case of the semi zero grazing, cattle usually graze Kikuyu or star grass during the daytime. At night cattle are kraaled or stabled where they are fed with napier and bana grass. Sometimes they are also fed during the day with crop residues and napier grass, particularly during the dry season when pasture productivity is low. Where cattle is permanently housed in a shed, the feed is cut and carried to them. Cattle kept in a zero grazing unit are predominantly fed with napier or bana grass which is first chopped. Dairy cows also receive 20–25 kg/cow per year of mineral supplement, and 500 to 1000 kg/cow per year manufactured and compound concentrates when lactating.

Male and female calves are bucket fed and hand reared. Calves usually receive 270 to 400 litres of milk only until they are weaned within 10 to 18 weeks. When the weaning period is shorter in the case of zero grazing system, calves also receive about 165 kg of concentrates during the rearing period. After this time they depend entirely on forage and join the rest of the herd about 6 months old at a weight of about 160 kg, or at two weeks at a weight of about 35 kg in the zero-grazing system.

Animals are watered twice a day and are regularly dipped or sprayed, drenched against internal parasites and receive other health treatment as needed.

Herd structures parameters are presented for the three cattle herd types in Table 5.2. Base herd structures are defined on the basis of a notional herd of 100 cows.

5.2 Goat Systems: Dairy and Meat

Under the low input technology, the system is characterized by the local small East African goats which are herded or tethered during the day and kept in store, stable or some kind of shelter at night. Goats feed mainly on natural pasture which supply about 70% of all feed consumed. The remainder is obtained for crop residues and through browsing on farm hedges. There is no definite mating season, hence kids are born the whole year round. Kids suckle the mother for about 5 to 7 months and consume the whole amount of milk produced by the dam.

Under the intermediate technology level, the systems are characterized by the dual purpose goats, usually F1 or F2 cross breeds. Generally, an exotic dairy goat buck such as Toggenburg, Saanen or Anglo-Nubian, is used for upgrading local goats. Animals are kept under semi-zero grazing management system. They are tethered during the day, graze mainly natural pasture, and frequently browse shrubs and farm hedges. Goats are penned during the night when they are fed with crop residues and fodder crops like napier grass and maize. Under these feeding conditions, goats obtain approximately 40% of their dry matter requirements from grazing natural pastures. Another 40% is drawn from fodder crops and 20% supplied through feeding crop residues. Animals are sprayed with acaricides regularly and drenched against internal parasites at regular intervals. Lactating females are partially milked before kids are allowed to suckle with an off-take of 1 to 2 kg of milk daily.

TABLE 5.2
Cattle herd structures

¹    Contribution to meat output accounted for in Table A6.2 under bull calves sold.

TABLE 5.3
Goat herd structures

TABLE 5.4
Sheep herd structure

The high level of technology situation is characterized by the intensive goat production system. The main aim of keeping exotic or grade dairy goats like Toggenburg, Saanen or Anglo-Nubian is to produce milk. Other byproducts are sales of breeding stock and goat meat. Goats are usually kept in a zero grazing system, where they are fed with napier grass and other fodder crops along with up to l.5 kg of concentrate per day. Water is provided in containers which are placed inside the stable.

Kids are bucket fed with milk, obtain 165 litres over a period of 4 months and are supplemented with SO kg of concentrates. All animals are sprayed with acaricide regularly.

Herd structure parameters are presented for the three goat herd types in Table 5.3. Base herd structures are defined on the basis of a notional herd of 100 does.

5.3 Sheep Systems: Meat and Wool

The dominant local breed kept at the low technology level is the Red Maasai or Red Kikuyu. It is a fat tailed hair sheep weighing some 25 to 30 kg. The animals feed mainly on natural pasture both on the farm and adjacent common land, and use crop residues and other consumable dry matter that can be found. Animals are often tethered during the day and kept in some kind of shelter at night. There is no definite mating season or control over breeding and little health care. Ewes on average lamb once a year. No milk is taken and the only products are meat and wool from surplus male lamb and cull ewes.

At the intermediate level of technology, there is controlled breeding and introduction of better class of sire,usually Draper rams, to improve meat production. The preferred crossbred seems to be 3/4 Draper and 1/4Maasai. In conjunction with this, there is more frequent joining programme, regular dipping and drenching, improvement in fodder provided and mineral supplementation. These inputs are accompanied by fenced paddocks rather than tethering or sheperding.

At the high level of technology, the production system is characterized by the Red Maasai × Droper crosses for meat and wool production. At higher elevations, (thermal zones T5, T6, T7 and T8), another system dominated by dual purpose wool and meat production, using crossbred wool sheep such as Corriedale-Hampshire, is also considered in the model.

TABLE 5.5    
Herd proportions by districts of nomadic herds in areas with LGPs < 120 days, expressed in TLUs

TABLE 5.6
Pastoral cattle herd¹ structures

¹    Nomadic distant - low inputs; Nomadic with market access - intermediate inputs; Semi-nomadic -high inputs.

Herd structure parameters are presented for the three sheep herd types in Table 5.4. Base herd structures are defined on the basis of a notional herd of 100 ewes.

5.4 Pastoral Systems: Meat and Milk

Pastoral systems have evolved as a method of producing human food under climatic conditions where normal rainfed crop production is not possible. It operates in the semi-arid zones where the rainfall is low in total quantity and is erratic both geographically over land in time, that is within seasons, and between seasons. The system comprises various combinations of large and small domesticated ruminants with the variations dictated by climate, notably temperature. As a source of food the large ruminants provide milk and some blood and meat while the small ruminants are a source of meat and, in certain locations, of milk. Camels play no part in the market food economy so they are not managed with a view to producing some saleable surplus. The role of the camel is mainly to provide milk and be a beast of burden.

All of the pastoral system operates on various combinations of cattle, camels, sheep and goat with some donkeys as pack animals. The combinations are a function of climate, available herbage and water, and local preferences. In the north the herds are principally camels/smallstock with some cattle in certain locations while in the centre and south the herds are almost exclusively cattle/smallstock. The herd proportions for the principal pastoral districts expressed in TLU equivalent (1 TLU = 250 kg animal) are set out in Table 5.5.

The proposed herd structure for cattle, derived from Unesco (1982), Semenye (1982) and Meadows and White (1981), are presented in Table 5.6. Herd structures for sheep and goat, derived from Unesco (1982), de Leeuw and Peacock (1982), Peacock (1983,1984) and King, Sayers, Peacock and Kontrohr (1982), are presented in Table 5.7. The proposed herd structure for camel is given in Table 5.8.

TABLE 5.7
Pastoral sheep and goat herd¹ structures

¹ Nomadic distant — low inputs; Semi-nomadic — high inputs.

TABLE 5.8
Pastoral camel herd¹ structure

¹Nomadic low input