PROCEEDINGS OF THE WORKSHOP ON ENHANCED WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION IN FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT(continue)

Introduction

The majority of the population in the Ivory Coast lives in rural areas and is engaged in agricultural production. Women play an important role in food crop cultivation but a minor one in cash crop cultivation because they rarely take part in the decision making process.

Fish farming was introduced in the 1950's but it was only when the Development of Fish Farming in Rural Areas Project started in 1978 that fish farming began to take off.

Status of women in aquaculture

Although they participate in almost all activities apart from pond construction and decision making, women represent just 2% of the fish farmers trained by the project. Many more women are interested to start fish farming either on an individual basis or in groups in order to gain some additional income.

Constraints

Women have become a special target group in the third phase of the project (1987 – 1990). In October 1988 a study was carried out to identify the constraints women are facing in fish fanning and to propose solutions. The following problems were identified:

1. Most women lack information on fish farming;

2. Women lack access to capital. The majority of the women can only save small amounts of money. Although they form informal savings and loan associations with friends,in general the sum saved is small and has to be repaid quickly. Also the system does not allow for much flexibility in the case of unexpected expenditures. Other sources include traditional credit which is easy to obtain but interest rates are high (50% to 100%) and bank credit, which requires guarantees and the endorsement of the husband or male parent thus making it difficult for women to obtain.

3. Women have difficult access to land because they must obtain the agreement of their husbands first.

4. The majority of rural women wished to receive assistance from female extension officers but the majority of project personnel are male.

5. Men are reluctant to give important posts to women. In the fisheries service, it is also difficult to attract women to field jobs due to the conflict with household duties.

Project Activities for women

In July 1990, the project provided fish farming training to 25 community workers who work with women in rural areas.

A special scheme for increased technical assistance to model fish farmers has placed emphasis on introducing women into the scheme. It is hoped that a core of experienced women fish farmers will emerge to influence other women to take up the activity.

The project has also developed a pilot credit programme for commercial fish farming together with the Banque Nationale pour le Developpement Agricole (BNDA). Originally, the Bank required collateral and a guarantee on the salary of a close relative which made it impossible for women to obtain loans. After the intervention of the project, the bank no longer requires these two conditions in order to lend money to women, and they currently make up 20% of beneficiaries.

The project also provides technical assistance to women's groups and assists in the identification of sponsors.

Fish farmers have also wanted to start farming catfish,(Clarias spp.) but the availability of fingerlings is limited. Currently women in the west of the country catch live catfish when the streams dry up. The fish is then transported to villages, stocked in depressions and sold for a good price. Fish farming of catfish therefore looks like a promising proposition for these women as well as fish farmers in general.

Recommendations and future options

The construction of storage ponds for catfish fingerlings, managed by women's associations has been accorded a top priority.

Model fish farmers who have received a training course, have now become resource persons to other fish farmers. This system should enable the development of a core group of female fish farmers.

Transfer of fish farming information to women in rural areas should be improved.

The establishment of groups will be encouraged because they improve access to production factors and credit.

Introduction

The purpose of the case study was to determine the factors that either encourage or impede the ownership of fish ponds by women. It was carried out in Musunda Bule village and Chibote centre in Chibote Area.

Introduction of Fish Farming

A missionary first introduced fish farming in 1987 with a project aimed at benefitting the male youths of the area. The youths received equipment and fingerlings from the missionary and a training course from the Department of Fisheries (DoF). Adult men in the area then started to take up fish farming after they saw fish reproducing in the youths' ponds. Women, however, did not start their own ponds because fish farming was:

-   introduced as a male activity

-   viewed as a male activity

-   fingerlings were expensive to buy

In 1989, the DoF, together with ALCOM introduced the idea of fish farming for women in Musonda Bule and followed up with an extension slide show for the residents of the village. Women constructed fish ponds and then DoF/ALCOM returned with fingerlings for sale.

Inputs, gender and fish farming

Because women have to carry out domestic chores and agricultural work, labour and time are not available to them to the same extent as men. Fish farming requires additional time and labour which a woman may not have. One alternative is to use family or hired labour, the former being preferable because no payment is required. In Bule, family labour was used to construct ponds. In Chibote centre, family labour is not so easily available because fields are further away. Hired labour would have to be used but charges are high so that most women are not able to afford it.

Land for fish farming in Bule is not in short supply but in Chibote centre a shortage of land may soon become a constraint to fish farming. It is likely in Chibote centre that one person would dig a lot of ponds in order to secure more land. As labour to dig ponds is a constraint for women anyway, a scramble to construct more ponds is likely to disadvantage women more than men.

Hoes and shovels are usually used to construct ponds. Although there are no specific norms concerning the use of this equipment, it is generally used by men during pond construction. In Bule, borrowing of equipment from the youths for the construction of ponds was easy because everyone was related; in Chibote it was not so easy and even more difficult for women because they would be borrowing equipment for use by someone else.

Before November 1989, government supplied fingerlings were in short supply, so the youths were the most important source. As demand was high, prices were also high and women did not have available resources to buy them.

According to farmers, fish feed is not a problem and requires no extra time to prepare. Men and children usually feed the fish in ponds owned either by men or by women. If ponds are on the way to the fields, women may also feed the fish.

In Chibote centre, women's knowledge about fish farming was gained from observation, whilst in Bule, women had benefitted from a slide show on fish farming.

Pond Construction

Many respondents, both men and women, considered pond construction to be the most difficult part of fish farming. The help of the spouse (male or female) and other labour was usually enlisted.

Decision-making in Fish Farming

Fish pond owners take joint decisions with their spouses on fish consumption and sale of fish but decide for themselves whether they will start fish farming, the distribution of the fish and its' proceeds. However, the use of husbands decide on task allocation. This means that if the man feels that there is another activity in the household which requires a women's attention, then fish farming will likely be relegated to second position.

Societal Attitudes

Lack of knowledge combined with the way the programme was introduced in Chibote led to a negative societal attitude towards fish farming. Although women participated in pond construction in Bule, in Chibote, women maintained that it was a man's job and that there was a negative attitude towards female participation in fish farming. They thought this attitude would change if the DoF and/or ALCOM would teach people, if a husband would assist his wife or if women started digging ponds at the same time as each other.

Impact of Fish farming on the status of Women in Bule

It is still too early to determine the impact of fish farming on the status of women. However, women have said that while they own their pond, all members of the household benefit from them. Ownership of a pond means that they are free to use the fish in their pond for consumption, sale or for friends and relatives, without asking permission. However, their lack of power to decide the labour contributions of the family might have a negative effect on the benefits of fish farming.

Women's Clubs and Fish Farming

Generally women were interested to work in clubs which were defined as a support group for mobilizing the essential requirements - labour, equipment and fingerlings for individually owned ponds, similar to the traditional system of labour mobilization. Women identified problems which can occur in groups such as members not working as hard as each other, everyone wanting to be leaders, no one wanting to work together and difficulty in finding time to work together because of household duties.

The women considered that the ideal size for a group would be 5 people as this gave the advantages of being able to meet together easily (ideally they would be neighbours), it would be easier to cooperate, it would be easy to construct one pond for each member, and they could all start fish farming at the same time because the ponds would be constructed relatively quickly.

Conclusions

When women are not early beneficiaries of a programme, it is possible that the society will define fish farming as a male activity. In addition, the involvement of women as fish pond owners is likely to be impeded or encouraged by:

-   the ease of access to land;

-   the other demands on women's time and labour;

-   the cost of mobilizing other labour for pond construction;

-   the exposure of the benefits of fish farming and the availability of equipment and fingerlings.

Introduction

The purpose of this case study is to assess the present status, progress and problems of women's groups in fish farming and the project impact in enhancing women's participation in fish farming development.

Status of Women's Groups and their Activities

Women mostly practice fish farming in women's groups. In 1989 there were 211 women's groups dealing with fish farming in the Lake Basin Development Authority region. Eight women's groups in two Districts, Kisimu and Kisii, were used for the case study. One of the difficulties in data collection was to get accurate production figures for cost and benefit analysis, due to the lack of records. The women's groups studied were established between 1975 and 1989.

Membership is not restricted to women only. Often male members carry out the hard manual labour, give advice and establish contacts with agencies for financial assistance. The size of the women's groups varies from 22 to 45 members.

Each member has to pay a membership fee of Ksh 5 or 10, depending on the agreement of the group. After establishing the group, they register at the District Office of the Department of Social Services. The registration fee is approximately Ksh. 75 – 100. The registration of women's groups gives them access to technical guidance and assistance of the Government.

Some women's groups have received funding (grant) from the Rural Development Fund, UNICEF or CARE. The grant can be given in the form of equipment or in cash.

All women's groups have a similar organization pattern: a Chairperson, Secretary, Treasurer, and 6 to 11 Committee members. Some of the groups have a Vice Chair person and a Vice Secretary. Often a Chairperson is an elderly or respected man or woman. All groups meet on a regular basis (weekly or fortnightly). Two groups in Kisimu District have monthly meetings with 9 other women's groups. This is called a ‘merry-go-round’. At every meeting each group subscribes Ksh. 50 and they rotate the total monthly contribution between each group.

The main activity of the women's groups is agriculture, followed by animal husbandry, fish farming and sometimes handicrafts. Fish is used for home consumption as well as for sale.

The benefits of women's groups, as expressed by the women, are that they enhance the status of women through cooperative actions, exchange of information, learning together and from each other and through the generation of increased incomes.

Fish Farming Activities

The women's groups studied have one to three fish ponds of sizes varying between 136 m² and 674 m² in which Tilapia nilotica is raised. Fish ponds were constructed between 1982 and 1989. Members (male and female) constructed the ponds together and received technical advice from the Fish Farmers Extensionist (FFE). Inputs like inlet and outlet pipes are purchased through contributions of the members or with aid from other sources. Sometimes they hire casual labour.

The land on which ponds are being built, is usually donated by one of the group members' husband. The District Development Committee (DDC) sometimes donates land to women's groups. Generally speaking, women do not own and inherit land in Kenya. As long as the fish ponds are operational, women's groups have full right to use the land.

All matters concerning fish pond operations are discussed in the regular group meetings. Sometimes Committee Members or the Fish Farming Extensionist assist in solving problems.

The project gives assistance to the women's groups in terms of technical advice on fish farming, short training courses, supply of fingerlings as well as lending of basic equipment for pond construction and a net for harvesting.

The majority of the members stated that their primary aim was to gain an additional income and secondly to have easy access to cheap fish. There is no difficulty in the marketing of fish, as Tilapia is in high demand. The money raised either goes back into the group's fund or is distributed equally amongst the members.

All women's groups wanted to increase contributions from members and expand their activities through buying dairy cattle, a maize grinding mill and increasing horticulture activities.

Constraints

The women's groups interviewed are facing a number of constraints:

-   a lack of technical and managerial skills;

-   a lack of funds or capital for increasing their activities; and

-   a lack of cheap fish farming inputs such as fertilizer and fish feed.

The case study included a literature review on gender issues in agricultural extension services, 8 interviews with fish fanning families in Lusaka District, Zambia and 6 interviews by means of a questionnaire and a discussion with Fish Scouts.

In fish farming families gender constraints are found to exist. Transfer of information on fish farming from husband to wife is found to be non existing, or only on the subject of fish feeding. Wives of farmers who want to have their own fish pond are either denied the possibility by their husbands, or receive no cooperation from them.

The knowledge on gender issues of male and female Fish Scouts is good except that they expect transfer of information to take place within the household. The attitude of Fish Scouts towards gender issues is positive. However, in practice they mostly deal with male farmers, as the head of the household.

The majority of Fish Scouts in Zambia is male. The preference of fish farmers and their wives for Fish Scouts is predominantly gender neutral. Hence, there are possibilities for bringing about changes in the fish farming extension programme with the existing extension service. However, it is found that Fish Scouts seldom extension visits alone. They often accompany senior extension officers, who play a more important role in the fish farming extension service. The attitude of senior extension officers towards gender issues is not known.

In the population of fish farming families in Lusaka District which was studied, there were no female-headed households, although in Zambia 26% of all households are female-headed. Apparently this group is difficult to reach by the existing fish farming extension programme.

Based on the results of the study five target groups of a gender-oriented fish farming extension programme are identified:

-   male farmers
-   wives of farmers
-   senior extension officers
-   Fish Scouts
-   female heads of households

The goals and elements of an action plan of the extension programme are based upon these target groups. The extension programme should ensure that:

-   husband and wife have equal access to information on fish farming, and have equal chances to start fish farming;

-   senior extension officers are aware of the various roles of men and women in fish farming and are able to identify and appraise the obstacles women are facing;

-   Fish Scouts and senior extension officers are equipped with skills to develop and use extension methods to increase participation of wives of farmers and female farmers.

A special study on how to involve female-headed households in fish farming extension is recommended.

Development Objective

The development objective of the project is to maximize the supply and use of fishery resources in an effort to achieve self-reliance in the food sector. Special consideration is given to welfare programmes to improve the living conditions of fisherfolk particularly as they relate to women and children.

Socio-Economic Studies

In realisation of women's multiple roles, a detailed study was carried out in order to understand the nature of women's economic activities and identify problems, needs and aspirations of women with the aim of redirecting project activities to address these. The studies were carried out in villages under the two project centres: Ogheye and Orere in Bendel State and Uta-Ewa and Iko in Akwa Ibom StatE.

Fishing

Although men are mainly involved in fishing, some women in three of the four villages are involved in fishing with traps and/or gill nets. Women are also engaged in the collection of periwinkles and clams from mangrove swamps.

A significant number of women in all four communities own some form of fishing gear such as canoes (30%), outboard engines (6%), nets or hook and line (28%) and traditional traps (11%) . Such ownership does not always relate to an active involvement in fishing. The equipment is usually hired to fishermen for fishing or to transport fish bought from trawlers. Payment is generally given in fish and are made according to the contributions of the woman versus the fisherman.

Processing

Processing of fish is carried out by women. Fish is smoked using two different kiln types, one inside the house and the other outside the house. Women were asked about the problems they encountered with their kilns and although there were significant variations between villages, the most common problems were that the kiln capacity was too small, that it was easily damaged or that they did not have enough money for improvement.

Inputs required for fish smoking can be a problem for women, particularly availability of firewood but also availability of material used for the smoking racks. Finally, women whose husbands fish with another women's fishing equipment also find it difficult to gain access to a supply of fish to smoke.

Marketing

Fish wholesaling and retailing is also predominantly carried out by women. Except for one village (Ogheye), most women who process, also market their fish. The main reasons are that this allows them to take advantage of better prices, it avoids bad debts by fish traders and they are able to purchase necessary foodstuffs for household use or for sale. With the exception of women from Uta-Ewe, which is near a main marketing centre, women spend a long time travelling to and from the marketing centres and there are difficulties in the getting space on transport boats during the peak fishing season.

Profitability

Most women believe that fish smoking and trading is profitable and that it is the only way to make a living. When asked how they would use extra profits to improve their business, most women would invest in activities that gave them greater access to fish either through buying fishing inputs or purchasing more fresh fish. In two villages, women also wished to improve their smoking kilns. A very small proportion of respondents wished to invest in non-fishery related activities. For example, respondents in the village of Uta-Ewa are more aware of other potentially more profitable business opportunities, because they are closer to town.

Sources of Capital

Most women raise their capital through fishing activities, personal savings and mutual saving societies (Osusu). Loans are usually received from cooperative or welfare societies which require no collateral. Of the few women that took out loans, all were satisfied with the interest and repayment terms but said that they would like to have access to larger loans. There are also informal credit systems in operation for the purchase of fresh fish and women extend credit to their customers.

Cooperative Societies

Evidence so far indicates that women's participation as members in fishermen's cooperative societies has not been favourable as women are not placed on the priority list of beneficiaries for fishing inputs received from government. The women themselves identified a lack of effective leadership, ignorance of cooperative rules, lack of trust amongst members, poor accountability of the executive, quarrels among female members and non-payment of loans as the main problems of the societies. Most women want activities of the societies to be re-oriented and emphasis placed on the provision of loan facilities and welfare programmes. More than half the women said they would be willing to undertake joint economic ventures with others particularly in fishing and fish trading but were sceptical of how the money would be handled.

Living Conditions

None of the communities have a good source of fresh water. Health facilities vary according to the proximity of the clinics. Very few children have been immunized. The most prevalent health problems identified by women are malaria, persistent diarrhoea, skin and eye infections.During group discussions with women on living conditions they were asked how they would use extra money to improve their living conditions. The following four areas were identified: improvement of housing, basic needs of the household, education of children and purchasing of electrical items such as radios and cassette decks.

Project Interventions

The project is involved in supporting the formation of cooperatives and the provision of health and water facilities.

Women have been encouraged to form their own cooperative societies and the project has held workshops on registration requirements, book keeping and cooperative rules and management. Some were organised at village level such as book keeping and others, such as management, were for cooperative secretaries.

Through a collaborative effort, there is now a regular immunization programme to all fishing settlements under the Uta-Ewa centre. A pit latrine was also constructed at Uta-Ewa which will serve an estimated 10% of the population. Two piped water outlets have also been provided for use by the community and the local primary school.

Future activities will include the introduction of improved smoking kilns and subject to the provision of funds, it is envisaged that a comprehensive family health programme with primary health care services will be initiated. Also women will be assisted through a Revolving Loan Fund to improve their fishing activities and engage in alternative income generating activities, where feasible and desirable.

Main Development Objectives of the Project

The project, based in Kigoma, has been operational since 1983. The main objective is to increase fish production and improve the standard of living of fishing communities in the area. One of the strategies used to achieve these objectives is the provision of a comprehensive and need oriented credit scheme operated by the Cooperative and Rural Development Bank (CRDB).

Project Approaches and strategies for the Integration of Women in the Project

In order to ensure the active participation of women in the project, two Women Development officers (a National Expert and her counterpart) were employed. Their responsibilities include the identification of the short and medium term credit needs of women, preparation of lending programmes, identification of credit worthy projects and cooperating closely with CRDB on loan disbursements and recovery.

In addition, the officers are responsible for organising support for and monitoring of, women's groups in fish processing and marketing and introducing elementary bookkeeping, management and training in nutrition.

Women's credit needs were identified through socio-economic surveys. The surveys also identified groups and individuals which were credit-worthy. Based on the findings, fishing gear, working capital and other equipment were issued to the women on a trial basis.

The Australian Special Fund for Women

The fund, worth 4 million Tanzanian Shillings (Tshs) has been issued twice - in 1988/89 and 1989/90. Twenty-six women have taken out loans of an average size of 100,000 Tshs at an interest rate of 13% per annum and a repayment period of 36 months. The activities sponsored include animal husbandry, poultry, pig farming, fish processing and marketing, tailoring, village canteens, charcoal trading, saw milling and groceries.

Local FAO Seedling Account

Under this account, FAO sells plant seedlings for afforestation and the income generated has been used to sponsor women's groups. Thirty-five women's groups (average size 22 people) have received on average, 30,000 Tshs totalling 1.1 million Tshs. The activities sponsored include fishing, fish processing and marketing. The repayment period is 6 months and no collateral is required.

FAQ/Netherlands Revolving Fund

Credit is provided for a number of essential inputs in the harvesting sub-sector such as boats, outboard engines, netting material, lanterns, ropes and various spare parts. A Revolving Fund to enable continuity of the scheme has been set up, linked to an external project account. The loans are paid in equal installments for 36 months at an interest rate of 15%. The total size of the fund is currently US $ 350,000. Twenty indivdual women and 7 women's groups have so far benefitted.

Evaluation of Project Activities

The involvement of women in fish production, processing and marketing has been enhanced through the consideration of women as a group with special social and economic needs. This has been achieved by employing Women Development Officers and through participatory approaches.

Women have demonstrated their ability to be good borrowers in the Revolving Fund and the ownership of fishing gear and equipment, receipt of working capital is expected to improve their incomes. So far, the approach adopted by the project has led to the following observations:

-   group loans have stimulated group organisation and management

-   it appears that women are gaining confidence in their ability to raise and utilize loans

-   the relationship between women and village leaders, male business colleagues and lending institutions has improved.

Conclusions

It is anticipated that by increasing the availability and size of loans together with improved training opportunities, the socio-economic status of women in the area will improve.

It is also envisaged that the current system will lead to sustainable and workable credit systems after the project has ended.

Introduction

Fisheries and to a lesser extent, aquaculture are generally considered male activities in Zimbabwe.

Two case studies of women in fisheries have been carried out: a businesswoman involved in the Kapenta fishery on Lake Kariba and a study of a women's cooperative which failed.

Case Study 1

Rosalina runs a Kapenta (Limnothrissa miodon) fishing business fishery of Lake Kariba. She started with a single boat hut has built up her fleet to five boats. Her company employs 15 fishermen and 10 fish processors, all of whom are men.

Her entry into the fishing business started when her husband learnt how to make fibreglass boats and fish in a dam using hook and line. She was responsible for marketing the fish. As fishing proved to be a lucrative activity, she decided to expand by exploiting the bream fishery on Lake Kariba by providing fishing boats to fishermen in return for their catch. Rosalina became a ‘middleman’ in the fish marketing business. Further investigations revealed that the Kapenta fishing business was more profitable and she applied for a licence to catch and market Kapenta.

After obtaining a licence, she approached finance houses for a loan to start her business but was turned down because she did not have sufficient collateral. She was then forced to ask her husband to be guarantor in order to secure a loan. He is also a minority shareholder in her company. On reflection she sees the benefits of working with her husband because he is able to run the engineering aspects of the business.

Case study 2

The Sizigondo Women's Fishing Cooperative was initiated by one woman, Mrs Simela, in an effort to assist women fish mongers to secure a steady supply of fish from Lake Mayfair. Because the women were unable to carry out production activities Mrs Simela diverted some of her farm labourers into fishing. They became employees of the cooperative. The cooperative was responsible for the purchase of fishing boats and nets as well as the wages of the fishermen.

Total membership was 12 and the administration and management of the cooperative was vested in Mrs Simela. The cooperative was not registered and had no written constitution. The members of the cooperative were from different socio-economic backgrounds and only had one thing in common, economic gain. At weekly meetings members would share their processed fish and pay their contributions.

The fishermen became dissatisfied with the rate of net replacement which led to reduced fishing effort and lower catches. They also began to sell to women outside the cooperative who were prepared to pay higher prices. In turn, the women were unhappy at the low production and began to leave the cooperative. The cooperative collapsed although Mrs Simela continued in the fishing business by regrouping the fishermen, appointing a manager and taking a share of the monthly proceeds.

The failure of the cooperative was largely because it was wrongly perceived, lacked institutional support and lacked cohesion because members were from differing socio-economic backgrounds.

Introduction

Orur and Olcot Kuppam are twin fishing villages on the beach front of the Besant Nagar area of southern Madras. Rapid expansion of the mechanized fishery and acute pressure on fishery resources have led to diminishing catches of the kattumuran fishery in the two villages. Their problems have been accentuated by their proximity to an urban centre and the villages have remained relatively neglected and isolated and have not been able to avail of the vast opportunities the city has to offer.

In 1987, while BOBP was doing technical trials of their beach landing craft at the sea front of Orur and Olcot Kuppam, they were approached by the villagers for help to deal with their numerous difficulties.

Activities

A participatory survey of village needs and problems was carried out by a BOBP community worker. Among other observations, the community worker noticed that the women were buying very little fish from the auctions of the beach landing craft landings - it was the first time the people talked about the problems they faced with marketing because of the lack of a proper facility.

A poster exhibition was held in the village in early 1988 in which the problems that came out in the participatory survey, like alcoholism, poor housing, low levels of literacy, diminishing catches and lack of alternative employment were highlighted in order to provoke discussion. The marketing problem began to emerge as a priority issue.

A women community worker was appointed to work on the marketing problem with women fish vendors and began meetings with the women.

By the end of 1988, roles were clearly defined for the market. The Corporation of Madras (CM) would construct the market, the women would run it and BOBP would assist in market design and training of the women to manage it.

Problems arose with the site selected and the women pressed the CM for a new site on which the market was finally constructed. During training, the women discussed and agreed to become a registered society. In August 1990, the fish market was handed over to the women.

Regular Weekly Meetings

Initially, BOBP found it difficult to attract the women's interest in regular discussions. However, once the discussions began shaping up into concrete reality, enthusiasm began to build up and the meetings became an important forum. One result of the meetings was that the women started a common development fund to meet group expenses and to give small loans to members of the group at a nominal rate of interest. This fund played an important role in making them function as a group.

Training

BOBP organised eleven one day training programmes which were aimed at getting the women to function as a group, communicate, discuss, analyse problems and work out solutions. Each training session was planned in such a way that its contents were based on the women's current concerns and the level of development of the group. The methods chosen were role playing, simulation games, structured exercises, field visits, case studies and street plays.

Formation and Growth of a Group Through a Participatory Approach

For BOBP, working with these communities was essentially an experiment to test the participatory approach. Forming a group is a slow and painful process which requires a great deal of time. Various processes in the group developed in different ways:

Leadership: It took a very long time for any definite leaders to emerge which was a positive factor because it forced different people to take responsibilities each time. The women finally chosen as leaders were people whom everyone trusted - literacy was also considered an important factor.

Democracy: Although the BOBP facilitator knew it was important to introduce democratic principles, in reality it was very difficult for people who came from different frameworks to participate in sharing power. Women felt that literacy was a major factor on the extent to which women exercise their control over events.

Decision-making: BOBP found that if the group is not allowed to make mistakes, it is definitely hindered in its growth. However, it is important that the facilitator is there to help the group through a crisis.

Participation: The difficulty lay in getting the women to realize that the community worker is only there as a guide and they would have to find solutions themselves.

Empowerment: At the beginning of the group formation, there was a strong feeling of powerlessness. BOBP has learnt that is not possible to overcome this feeling just by putting the group through a hypothetical situation. Whilst training helped, the group had to go through an actual situation before they felt capable of doing anything on their own.

Trust: There is only a certain degree to which group members are able to trust each other. The level of trust is often influenced by cultural factors and thus limits the extent to which collective action can occur.

Conflict: The group has still not reached a stage where they can resolve conflict through discussion in a rational manner. They still need a mediator.

Conclusion

The market has been handed over to the women and now the main concern that lies ahead is whether they will be resilient enough to cope with the ups and downs of an organisation.

Introduction

The overall objective of the Integrated Development of Artisanal Fisheries programme is to assist interested countries in the development and management of their small-scale fisheries to achieve optimum social and economic benefits through a community-centred approach. Within this general framework, the Model Project in Benin (MPB) undertook a pilot function by adopting a participatory approach and the integration of fishery related activities. The MPB began in mid-1984 and finished at the end of 1989, whereas funding for the Regional Programme is to date assured until the end of 1993.

Preparatory Assistance

Placondji is an urban area, located next to the port of Cotonou. Preliminary contacts with women in Placondji indicated that they were interested in starting small-scale businesses in order to improve their financial situation. The weak economic position of women in Placondji was compounded by a general lack of managerial skills to maintain a family budget or the accounts of a small business.

In collaboration with the area Social Centre, the community organiser of the project (who speaks the local language) initiated a course on basic principles of management in October 1987. Some 25–30 women of different literacy levels participated. Course material was based on the active participation of the women.

An accelerated numeracy course was included in the general course for individuals without any schooling. Six of the eleven illiterate women participated and only one dropped out. She was replaced by someone else who managed to catch up with the help of extension workers.

Setting-up the Kiosk

It was not the initial intention of the course to set up a fresh fish kiosk. However, because the fishing technology section of the MPB was having problems marketing the increased volume of fish brought in by fishermen doing practical training at sea , it was proposed that the women from Placondji would market the fish. During discussions on how to integrate these two activities, the idea of a fresh fish kiosk was born.

The management course was slightly re-oriented to prepare the women for their new tasks. The operational details of the kiosk were decided step by step as and when particular situations come up - allowing the women to fully participate in this process.

The MPB provided for the installation of the kiosk and purchase of equipment (=US $1200) as well as the initial working capital (US$ 175) . The women had to reimburse the MPB for the working capital and some of the equipment.

The kiosk became operational in June 1988, and 11 women, including the 6 women who attended the literacy course, wanted to work in the kiosk. They were divided into 2 groups working alternate weeks.

Results

Initially fish was purchased from the fishing technology section of the MPB at the official price. However, a month after operation, the experimental fishing and training course was stopped, for a number of reasons. This meant that the women had to obtain fresh fish on the open market at prices higher than the official price. No real problems arose during the peak fishing season, but during the low season, women were unable to gain access to fish as they were new to the business and at times the kiosk was closed for lack of fish. However, the kiosk remained open until January 1990, when the scales and weights were stolen. The time it took to solve this problem, coupled with a poor supply of fish meant that the kiosk did not reopen until June 1990.

Gross returns were highest in the first six months of operation and it was during this time that the loan was paid back to the MPB. Throughout 1989, returns were greatly affected by problematic fish supply, the consequent fluctuations in the purchase price of fish and the serious deterioration of the Benin economy. Coupled with a low turnover and the need for more ice to keep fish fresh, costs were also increasing.

Problems Encountered Within the Group

By the end of 1988, 5 women had left the group. Part of the reason for their departure was that individual returns were low (US $ 10 – 13/month). In some ways, the reduction of group size to six women was beneficial as individual returns remained relatively constant despite a reduction in overall returns.

Tension in the group had arisen when unauthorised borrowing of money from the cashbox by members of one sub-group took place. They were suspended from working in the kiosk for one month. For this reason a solidarity fund was initiated in January 1989 from savings of women to cater for emergencies and to benefit all women equally.

Increasing amounts of fish sold were not recorded and this problem was solved by holding the women who weighed the fish responsible for any non-recorded fish sales.

A group spirit did not automatically arise when the women started to work together and the more out-spoken women tended to take advantage of the less-outspoken women. In addition, the semi-literate women lacked confidence in their tasks and so after 4–5 months schedules were made to distribute tasks evenly.

Although the selling of fish on credit was not allowed it took place and by the time the kiosk was forced to close in January 1990, there were substantial outstanding debts. The women ensured project staff that they wanted to restart the kiosk and that they would try to recover the debts. Reclaiming the debts wasn't very successful and after 6 weeks the women were asked to come up with another solution. The group decided that those women responsible for selling on credit would be personally responsible for the debts and would have to repay them from their future benefits.

Concluding Remarks

In retrospect,and based on gross returns, eleven women may have been too many for the kiosk. The decision to involve a particular number of women is complex and cannot be solved by just looking at the returns. Consideration has to be given to the amount of the preparatory assistance which could not have been arranged for just 5 women and the difficulty in anticipating the number of women that may withdraw.

Some of the factors affecting the reduction in the returns were difficult to forsee. However, lower benefits may mean that one reaches a poorer target group, as these levels of returns may not be attractive enough for women better off.

The most crucial moment in the learning process of the group was when they had to deal with the outstanding debts and theft of equipment. They expected another loan from the project but were forced to find a solution for themselves. It was a major achievement that the women themselves found a way out and manages to buy a new scale and weights from their own savings.

Finally, the project has no idea about the effects of the general management training on those women who did not join in the kiosk. For those who worked in the kiosk, remarkable changes have taken place in their attitudes and capacity, especially in the women without any previous schooling. This new confidence and the changed attitudes are basic preconditions for any further development of the women.

Introduction

The study was carried out in order to provide a better understanding of the role of women in fisheries. Interviews were conducted with women at markets and landing beaches in Kyela, Ludewa and Mbinga districts of Tanzania. Interviews were conducted during the wet and dry season. During the wet season, a total of 111 fishermen, 34 fish processors (31 women), and 61 fish traders (19 women) were interviewed. During the dry season, 129 fish catchers (including 93 women), 40 fish processors (29 women) and 59 fish traders (34 women) were interviewed.

Fishing

In Kyela district, during the wet season, women are not engaged in fishing but concentrate on crop cultivation. However, during the dry season, women fish in ponds and rivers when the water is low enough to enable catching fish with traps, hands or spears. Often this kind of fishing is carried out in a group, with men, women and children. The fish caught is used for household consumption.

In Ludewa district, a few women fish using boats and gear owned by their husbands. No woman owns gear or a boat. The fish caught is usually sold to fish mongers at the beach.

In Mbinga district, no women are involved in fishing, probably because there are many crocodiles and because, unlike the other two districts, there is a traditional belief that women bring bad luck to fishing boats.

Processing

There are three methods used to process fish: sundrying, hot-smoking and frying. In Kyela district, the most common processing method is frying. Large fish, such as Bagrus spp. and Clarias spp. are cut up into small pieces, fried and sold at markets, bars and clubs. In Ludewa and Mbinga districts, women buy fish from the beach and process them by smoking.

In all three districts, E. sardella is sundried after washing and boiling.

Marketing

Fish marketing is the greatest single source of income for women. In Kyela district, women sell fresh and processed fish at markets. In Ludewa district, women sell processed fish to passengers from the lake's ships but because of transport problems, they are unable to take fish to distant markets. In Mbinga district, women often club together in order to hire vehicles to take their processed fish to distant markets.

Introduction

The main project goal is to improve the utilisation of local resources for fisheries and fish production. The Programme, which has been running since May 1987, is based on Lakes Chilwa and Chiuta, in the Southern Region of Malawi. These lakes yield between 15–30,000 tons of fish per year, of which over 60% is smoke dried and about 30% sun dried, with only about 10% sold fresh.

Introduction of smoking kilns

The Project has concentrated on improving fish smoking methods by promoting the construction and use of smoking kilns. These kilns are an adaptation of the Ivory Coast kiln and are made in mud bricks, burnt bricks, stone or flat iron sheets, the latter being portable and therefore particularly appropriate to the fisherman living out in the marsh (Typha swamp) which covers over 1/3 of Lake Chilwa, or who migrate with fluctuations in the lake level and the fish catches.

All these kilns, of which there are now over 400 on 80 different fish landing beaches, have been constructed by the fishermen and fish processors themselves and are privately owned. They are either used by the owner or rented to other fish traders - which in itself generates a substantial source of income.

These kilns offer many advantages over the traditional methods of smoke drying ("roasting") on a wire mesh over an open fire:

-   Fuelwood consumption (and cost) is reduced to approximately 1/3.

-   The quality of the product is much better resulting in faster sales, higher prices (up to double) and greatly reduced losses from spoilage by mould or insects.

-   The fish is dried much more quickly (especially if it was previously sun-dried), and much larger quantities can be processed at one time, thus streamlining the trader's business.

Above all, the improved kiln eliminates the severe physical stress and hardship from the heat and smoke imposed by the traditional method, which also requires constant attention for long hours, and is thus particularly unsuitable for women.

In 1988, on Lakes Chilwa and Chiuta only 16% of the fish traders were women and the proportion who processed the fish themselves was even lower.

Project activities for women

The project has since focused on women in the development of the fishery. Since January 1990, 25 women's fish smoking clubs, with a membership of about 350 women, have been established around Lake Chilwa and Chiuta. Two clubs have been lent improved plank canoes by the project at their request, in order to improve their access to fish supplies by renting to the fishermen. This also generates revenue for the club, both to purchase their own plank canoe and to build more smoking kilns and fish smoking houses. This scheme is now being extended to more clubs. In addition 10 clubs will also build fish stores, for their own use and for rent to other fish traders. Each club has also been assisted to set up its own tree nursery for fuelwood production, and sale of seedlings, the tree species being selected for their suitability for fish smoking.

Project impacts

The women who have adopted fish smoking have clearly gained considerably, not only in financial terms but also in status and self confidence.

The Promotion of Women Project (GTZ) in Malawi has also been assisted to establish 4 women's fish smoking clubs at Makanjila on the south-east shore of Lake Malawi. These clubs have further developed their own services and credit with great success and this will be promoted among the women's clubs on Lakes Chilwa and Chiuta.

The motto of the women's fish smoking club is :

"Tigwiradi Nchito - we mean business!

Introduction

The Fisheries Development Project on Lake Kivu (Rwanda) is now in its third phase. It started modestly in 1979, following what proved to be a successful introduction of a clupeid Isambaza (Limnothrissa miodon) from Lake Tanganyika to Lake Kivu in 1959. Its main objectives are the rational exploitation of Lake Kivu fisheries resources in order to increase the protein supply and create employment and revenue opportunities.

Due to rather unique circumstances such as no previous fishing, a virtually monospecific fishery and no local tradition to consume the fish, the project staff has been called on to intervene in various areas of fisheries development. Fisheries biology, (fishing and postharvest) technology and marketing were the main areas of intervention.

Considering the fact that the project had to develop a market for an introduced and thus previously unknown fish species a considerable effort was necessary in order to establish the market. Consequently, the project mounted an intensive promotional programme, based on nutritional education and cooking demonstrations for schools, health centres, local restaurants etc.

The project provided credit to the fishermen and is establishing the basis for fisheries administration and management. Local personnel are continuously being trained in all areas of fisheries development.

The women in Rwanda

The Rwandese nucleus family consists of the husband and his wife (or wives since the practice of polygamy exists, although lately diminishing) and their unmarried children. It may also include unmarried brothers or sisters and the old. Inheritance is patrilinear. After the marriage, the wife lives with her husband and their children belong to the man's family. The husband must pay a dowry to the family of the bride in order to legitimate the marriage. As long as this is not paid, the woman can take her children back to her own family.

The social position of women is inferior to that of a man. Women have little or no influence on decision making. Women cannot inherit land from their husband nor from their own family.

Farm labour within the family is divided by sex, Banana cultivation, cashcrop production and animal husbandry is done by the men and food crop production is done by women.

Study of women marketing Isambaza in Gisenyi (Rwanda) and Goma (Zaire)

This study was executed by the economist of the project (FARHANI, 1990). Daily observations of 10 women over a period of 2 months were made. Main objectives of this study were to:

1. to conduct a technical analysis of the small-scale fishtrade;

2. to determine the profitability of marketing Isambaza

3. and to compare Rwandese and Zairese fishwives in the bordering villages of Gisenyi and Goma.

Isambaza is bought per kilo for a fixed price and paid for in cash. Sometimes Isambaza is bought by these women on exterior markets for a relatively low price: these Isambaza are very small and are caught with very fine nets. The fish is transported in a bucket or on a laminated wooden plate, which the women carry on their heads. Women of the same market determine the price of Isambaza every morning and they all sell them at that price. Depending on the supply and demand, the price changes from day to day. The average daily amount bought by the fishwives is 17,1 kg. The fish which is not sold the same day is either smoked (in Goma) or dried (in Gisenyi) for better conservation.

Survey findings

Based on the actual data obtained from the interviews, average net earnings per women per day of Gisenyi and Goma women are 183, 55 and 185,48 FRW respectively (80 FRW = 1 US$) . According to Farhani, (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/227) , given that respondents often underestimate earnings, the realistic estimate of the net earnings per women per day were found to be in the order of 298,58 FRW for Gisenyi women and 452,49 FRW for Zairese women. Comparing these findings with the fact that daily minimal wage for general agricultural work is at 100 FRW, small-scale Isambaza trading has proved to be profitable. Zairese women obtain higher profits than Gisenyi women mainly due to lower operating and purchasing costs, longer experiences in fish trading and marketing and an established market for fish.

General observations and recommendations

The Fisheries Development Project on Lake Kivu was designed to be a ‘typical gender-neutral’ project. There is no special consideration for women stated in the project objectives. However gender specific fisheries activities have been developed: Isambaza is fished by men (an estimated 2300 fishermen on the lake) and the processing and marketing is done exclusively by women (for the whole lake, an estimated number of 3500 women are involved in the processing and marketing circuit).

Socio-economic and cultural information on the project's women beneficiaries are unknown. Such information collection can be included in future project activities, which will enable to assessment of the socio-economic impact of project activities on these on these of women beneficiaries.

Introduction

The Federal Department of Fisheries carried out two case studies on fish processing before and after the introduction of the Chorkor smoking oven. The studies were carried out in Igbekki/Ode-Omi in Ogun State (a maritime state) and Ipata in Kware State (an inland state).

Case Study One

Igbekki/Ode-Omi is an isolated fishing community, accessible only by boat. The fish landing beach is 7 kilometres away from the village and is generally reached by foot. The main fish landed are small pelagics, of which ‘bonga’, Ethmalosa spp. predominates.

The government built a fish smoking centre near the beach equipped with traditional drum type smoking kilns. Smoking of fish usually takes 7–9 hours. The main disadvantages of the oven were high fuelwood consumption, high maintenance costs, poor working conditions due to heavy smoke and high post harvest losses.

The Chorkor smoker was then introduced as an alternative to the traditional smoking kiln by the government. Before the introduction, women were organised into cooperative societies in order to utilise the new ovens communally. The women actively participated in the construction of the oven and local carpenters were employed to construct the smoking trays.

Initially, the women were dubious of the benefits of the Chorkor smoker but after adapting the smoker to their requirements they saw the advantages and readily adopted it. In addition, they have worked out a system for processing fish together as a group. Each women labels her own tray and they all contribute to the costs of firewood. They pay a nominal rent into a common fund and charge rents to other women processors outside the group who wish to use the oven. These funds are used for maintenance of the oven and for replacement trays.

The women can now handle larger quantities of fish over a shorter time period and they claim that they are economically better off. However, their ability to smoke greater quantities of fish means that they require more capital to purchase fish. They have now requested the Department of Fisheries to assist them in obtaining loans as cooperatives from the Peoples Bank, a bank which does not require collateral.

Case Study 2

Ipata fishing community is located along the banks of the Niger. About 3 0% of the women in the community are involved in canoe fishing with nets and traps. Women smoke fish by coiling the fish and holding them together with sticks before arranging them on traditional smoking kilns.

The women of Ipata were already organised into cooperative societies by the State Fisheries Division when the Chorkor smoker was introduced. They actively participated in the construction of the Chorkor smoker but during smoking trials the women bluntly refused to change their way of coiling fish before smoking because they felt that their customers would find it unacceptable. However, they easily adapted the Chorkor smoker to suit their needs.

The Chorkor smoker has now been accepted and the smoking centre has been developed into a smoked fish market. People also come from neighbouring villages to smoke fish. In recognition of these successes, the local government authority has acquired and fenced off a large area of land to develop the centre into a modern fish market and have formally requested the Department of Fisheries to assist them with the construction of more ovens.

Some women processors have also started to construct a one chamber oven in their back yards.

The women processors also need more working capital and efforts are now underway to assist them to obtain loans from the Peoples Bank.

Conclusion

The Chorkor smoker is acceptable to both small and large-scale processors in both communities. Women of both communities agree that the Chorkor smoker saves wood which is becoming increasingly scarce. The oven also saves time and produces a better quality product which can command higher prices.

The United Nations Fund for Population Activities has now indicated it's interest and support for providing women in rural fishing communities with some basic needs that may increase their socio-economic well-being. A project proposal, which includes further introductions of Chorkor smokers, a loan scheme, health care centres and a non-formal education for sites in four states has now been submitted.

Introduction

Methods to integrate gender issues have to be developed within the institutional framework in which the development process operates. For FAO fisheries and aquaculture development activities, this framework has four main agents: communities, FAO, national governments and donors. Sometimes, linkages between these agents can be weak, but the role of each agent is described below.

Communities

The key agent within this framework is ‘the community’, which should be responsible for the identification of their development needs. Communities convey these needs to governments, FAO and donors through channels such as the extension service or existing field projects. Equally, results of other development activities are transmitted back to communities through these same communication channels.

FAO Member Governments

FAO member governments provide the formal channel for linking communities with national planning structures and with development assistance through field projects and activities.

Government administrative structures, development policies and priorities also provide the overall environment in which field projects operate. Results of project activities are fed back to governments from the communities, the projects themselves, donors and by FAO.

FAO Fisheries Department; Regular Programme

The FAO Regular Programme is planned and implemented through the decision making processes of FAO member governments, the Committee on Fisheries and the FAO council and conference. The FAO Fisheries Department sets priorities based on the views and recommendations of the Committee on Fisheries and regional fisheries bodies (such as CECAF, WECAF) which reflect member government development priorities in the fisheries sector.

Regular Programme resources come from member government contributions. These funds are mainly directed towards supporting field activities and take the form of policy advisory services, technical support to member countries, technical and operational backstopping. In addition, most field projects are conceived, identified and formulated through Regular Programme activities. Regional fisheries bodies and regional offices also come under the Regular Programme.

The Core Group on Women in Fisheries acts as the coordinating mechanism for Regular Programme gender-related activities in the various divisions of the Department of Fisheries at FAO headquarters. The Group also serves as a consultative body and aims to ensure that gender issues are properly addressed in regular and field programme activities. However, the Group's functions are limited because it has no specific budget allocation and relies on the commitment of a few individuals and disbursements of Regular Programme funds, allocated to the various divisions within the Fisheries Department.

Finally, the Inter-Departmental Working Group on Women in Development (IDWG/WID), helps to facilitate linkages on gender-related activities between other departments in FAO such as forestry and agriculture.

FAO Fisheries Department; Field Programme

The Field Programme is a direct result of the interactive decision making processes between governments, FAO Regular Programme activities and donors. The programme plays a key role in implementing strategies for fisheries and aquaculture management and development. Funding for field projects comes from two main sources: donors and the contributions of FAO member countries.

National, regional and global projects are usually formulated by counterpart governments, with the assistance of FAO. They are then planned and executed within the context of national development policies and priorities.

Results of field activities are fed back to FAO and reflected in the Programme of Work and Budget and whilst field projects often play an important role in identifying development opportunities and formulating future project ideas. Within this process, global and regional programmes play an important and catalytic role because of their specialized geographic and subject knowledge base.

Donors

Donor-funded projects are executed by FAO through the Field Programme. Of the total project budget, 13% is retained by FAO headquarters for backstopping and administration of these projects.

Results of, and experiences learnt from, field activities are fed back to donors as part of the monitoring and evaluation process. These results contribute to decisions made by donors concerning future funding policies and priorities.

Consequently, donors' funding policies will often have an impact on the design and approaches of field projects. Over the last few years, many donors have included "Women in Development" as a priority area for funding, which has been reflected in the activities of a number of field projects in the fisheries and aquaculture sector.

AQUACULTURE WORKING GROUP

The project entitled "Development of Fish Farming" aims at promoting fish farming in rural areas. The first phase started in 1987 and ended in 1989. This phase was successful in terms of number of people who have taken up fish farming. However, all fish farmers were male. Therefore, the following section was included in the project document for the second phase (1990 – 1992) of the project :

“the project should ensure that women will also share significantly in the benefits of the fish farming development project.”

A socio-economic study, carried out in the beginning of 1990, revealed the following information.

Female-headed households

35% of the households in the project area are headed by women. Several of these women have shown interest in fish farming.

They can be subdivided into three categories (in order of importance):

-   Permanent female-headed households where the head is either divorced or widowed;

-   de facto female-headed households which are female headed due to male migration, desertion or unmarried motherhood;

-   periodically female-headed households which may be one of several units attached to an adult male through polygynous marriage, or households where male migration is on a seasonal basis.

Categories of fish farmers

There are basically two types of farmers who adopted fish farming: small-scale farmers (selling less than 50% of their crops) and semi-commercial farmers (selling more than 50% of their crops but not all).

The small-scale farmers grow local maize, beans, groundnuts, sweet potatoes, pumpkins and they often have a small vegetable plot. They keep less than 15 chickens, an average of 5 goats and some may have 1 or 2 cows. The land is allocated by the village headman. In this sector women are responsible for food production and also have to work on their husband's cash crops since they can not afford to hire labour. The major objective of the current pond owners is to produce fish for local sale (which does not exclude that part of the fish which is actually consumed.)

The semi-commercial farmers are often retired civil servants who settle as farmers in a settlement scheme outside their home area. They have title deeds to their land. They concentrate on the cultivation of cash crops for which they usually employ hired labour. Besides assisting their husbands with the cultivation of cash crops by supervising labour, women are responsible for subsistence farming. No workers are being hired for food crops. Fish is mainly produced for the district market.

Access to and control over resources

Land. The ethnic groups which inhabit the project area are matrilineal of origin. However, nowadays ownership and inheritance of land often follows the male line. Women can obtain usufruct over land. Title deeds are practically always issued to men.

Labour and time. Work in the households is divided according to sex. The domestic role is assigned to women. Men and women both spend time in agriculture although there is a tendency that men concentrate on cash crops and women on food crops.

Table 1: Average time spent on various activities by sex (in hours per day) of a small scale farmer.

Generally speaking, labour and time are thus not available to women on the same basis as men.

The seasonality of the labour inputs in agriculture is represented in figure 1.

Figure 1: Average number of hours spent per day on agricultural activities according to season.

Equipment. Hoes are easily available in villages but not every one owns a shovel or a wheelbarrow. The few persons who own these tools do occasionally lend them out. Semi-commercial farmers do own these tools and sometimes have access to mechanized labour.

Fingerlings. Ideally, the first batch of fingerlings is supplied by the Department of Fisheries at a (subsidized) government price. Afterwards fish farmers are supposed to keep their own fingerlings for restocking. Because the supply of fingerlings is limited there is a long waiting list which has induced a lively informal trade in fingerlings costing 10 times the price of Government fingerlings.

Capital. Small-scale farmers in general and women in particular have little capital available.

Fish feed and fertilizer. Small-scale subsistence farmers use on farm by-products either to feed their fish or as inputs for composting. Semi-commercial fish farmers buy manure from neighbouring farmers and/or purchase maize bran and mill sweepings from the grinding mill (the fish farmer has to provide transport).

Knowledge on fish farming. Semi-commercial farmers usually find it easier than small-scale farmers to contact extension officers. Moreover, the extension service usually works with men as heads of households therefore women have little information on fish farming. Transfer of information within the household seldom takes place.

Tasks allocation in fish farming

Men usually excavate ponds. Often the wife and children participate in transporting dirt. Semi-commercial farmers often hire labour for pond construction. Feeding and fertilizing can be done by men, women or children or in the case of semi-commercial farmers by their worker(s). Hooking fish for home consumption is usually done by men or children. The whole household assists during the harvesting (compete drainage) of the pond. Marketing of fish can be done by both men and women.

Decision making in fish farming

The decision to start fish farming is usually taken by the owner (men in this case) in consultation with his wife. The owner allocates the tasks but in case he is absent, the wife will take decisions concerning feeding and fertilizing. The decisions to take some fish for home consumption and when to sell fish, are made jointly. The owner may give his wife a share of the money received, depending on her assistance in fish farming activities.

Fish farming extension service

The majority of the extension officers is male. The budget of the Department of Fisheries only allows for the recruitment of few extra women.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Identify the different target groups for the ‘Development of Fish Farming’ project. What criteria were used to distinguish the target groups? Why?

2. What are the needs (e.g. fish for home consumption. Fish for barter, money) of the different target groups.

3. Carry out a constraint analysis from a gender perspective (what are the specific problems of female target groups in starting fish farming; possible conflicting interests between different target groups and specific problems of women in these conflicts; constraints in management of fish farming)

4. What other information may be needed?

5. What are the opportunities for women and/or the project to solve these problems?

6. Formulate strategies to ensure the reinforcement of women's participation in fish farming.

FISHERIES WORKING GROUP

Fisheries Sector Development Objectives

1. increase national fish production.

2. increase the economic and social benefits of the fishery in the artisanal sector.

3. enhance the role of women in fishing communities.

Proposed project site

The fishing community is located in a coastal area, 200 km from the capital. Three small towns are 60–100 km away by a dirt track.

Population

A recent census carried out during the dry season gave the total population as 1250 inhabitants distributed as follows:

Earlier studies have indicated that the population decreases by 25% during the rainy season mainly due to migrant fishermen returning to their home villages.

There are two main ethnic groups, the Exe and the Zed. The Exe form 60% of the population and the Zed account for 40% of the population. Both groups are involved in all aspects of fish catching, processing and marketing but there is some conflict between them and they tend to live in geographically distinct areas in the village.

The Household

The village is characterised by the following household types:

1. Households of owners of the pelagic boats. These are generally large households where the boatowner has two - four wives, depending on the wealth of the household head. The economic activities of the household are all centered around fishing and some crew members and their families may also live in the same compound.

2. Households of crew members. In these smaller households, fishing is also the main economic activity and the wife of the crew member may be a small scale fish processor or involved in another economic activity, such as petty trading.

3. Households of owners of small boats. These are small,poor households carrying out similar actvities as those in (2).

4. Non-fishing households involved in a number of economic activities - usually small, poor households.

5. Female-headed households (FHH). There is considerable variation within this household type:

-   de jure FHH who are widows of large boatowners and oversee the fishing operation;

-   de jure FHH who are large-scale fish traders;

-   de jure FHH who have no access to a supply of fish and are involved in small-scale economic activities.

Economic Activities

The village is a permanent settlement and fisheries and fisheries-related activities form the predominant economic activity.

Nutritional Status

The nutritional status of adults and children is generally good, wealthier families tend to eat twice a day and poorer families eat once a day.

Fish Production

There are three currently under-exploited fisheries:

1. Small pelagic fishery using ring nets from large canoes. Half of these canoes are motorized and there is a trend towards motorization. All those actively involved in the fishery are men. It is a year-round fishery with a four month peak season.

2. Demersal fishery caught from small dugout unmotorized canoes (crew size 1–3) using passive fishing gear such as gill nets and hook and line. Fish catchers are all men. It is a year-round fishery.

3. A shore-based fishery catching octopi and crustaceans from the rocky intertidal areas. Harvesters are all women. It is a year-round fishery.

Fish Processing

Apart from locally consumed fresh fish, all fish is smoked on traditional smoking ovens. Crustaceans and octopii are dried. The smoking process depends on where the fish is marketed. At local, small markets, only fish that has been smoked for one day is sold, while at the distant markets fish that has been smoked for 2–3 days is sold. Although most processors are women, a few men are also involved.

Fish Marketing

Fish marketing is mainly carried out by women - often both processors and traders. There are also a number of men involved in larger scale fish marketing.

Fisheries-related activities

Net menders, boatbuilders, fuelwood collectors are all men. Fish carriers (beach to processing area) are young women and girls.

Non-fisheries related activities:

A significant proportion of the community is engaged in economic activities which are not directly related to fishing. These occupations either provide essential services to the community eg. shopkeepers, tailors, bakers, traditonal midwives and healers, or provide subsistence income needs for large numbers of the poorer members of the community such as petty trading, selling cooked foods, agriculture. Most of those involved in the latter are women.

All households have vegetable gardens which are tended by women, and maize farming which is undertaken by men. Vegetable gardens and fields are on average, 2 km from the village.

Household Budgets

The majority of husbands and wives maintain seperate business accounts. They organize their own businesses independently and are responsible for all decisions and expenditures on their economic activities.

Household expenses, including school fees are divided between husband and wife with each having clearly defined responsibilities. Husbands are generally expected to pay for the building and maintenence of the house and the majority of school fees, whilst wives are expected to pay for food and day-to-day household expenses.

However, women from poorer households have less control over the income earned from their own economic activities because these households have so few resources that anything earned by husband or wife goes immediately to pay for household expenses and food.

Community Services

There is a mobile clinic which visits the village once a week. A primary school is located in a village 5 km away. There are sufficient hand pumps supplying fresh water although during the dry season there can be a scarcity of water.

Credit

There are a few sources of informal credit. Savings associations (for both men and women) play a minor role in financing economic activities. Wives of boatowners, large-scale processors and traders frequently lend money to fishermen/boatowners for daily operating expenses and the money is repaid with free fish or fish at a reduced price.

Fishermen provide fish to processors on short term credit who repay once they have sold their smoked product. The processors may also provide small advances to fishermen. Fish traders (wholesalers) may extend short-term credit to their customers, repaid in cash once the fish has been sold.

There is no institutional credit available.

The Status of Women : Economic Activities

Fish catchers and processors: These are generally wives of the demersal fishermen or come from small female-headed households. Fishing is a part-time activity and is usually combined with subsistence agriculture. Fish, crustaceans and octopii are sun-dried and sold at local markets or to fish traders.

Large-Scale Fish Processors: These are usually wives of owners of the pelagic boats who are involved in large scale processing of fish. Often they hire other women to help in the processing of fish.

Small-scale fish processors: These women process small amounts of demersal and pelagic fish for sale at local markets. They may undertake other economic activities such as petty trading. Access to fish is sometimes difficult as they are often unable to extend credit to fishermen. They sell at local markets or to fish traders.

Large-scale fish traders: There are two types of trader: those that come from the village and those that come from outside the village from other towns to buy smoked fish. They bring other foodstuffs and items for sale in the village. Many have kinship links with catching and/or large-scale processing households in the village and a few of these traders are also boat and gear owners, who recieve a share of the catch as rent. They may also hire women in the village to processs fish for them and pay them in cash.

Petty traders: Usually no access to a supply of fish and can be involved in a variety of income-generating activities.

Constraints

The following constraints have been observed:

1. Fishermen from the smaller boats are limited in their catching capacity by lack of gear and a limited fishing range. The pelagic fishery is facing increasing costs due to increased capitalisation and is passing these costs onto the beach price of fish.

2. Increased capitalisation of the pelagic fishery has meant that fishermen require larger amounts of credit to cover fixed and variable costs. Fish processors are finding it increasingly difficult to give sufficient credit, and large scale fish traders are stepping in. This secures them greater access to fish supplies at the expense of automonomus processsing enterprises.

3. With more women becoming employed as fish processors, there may be a decline in women's income, well being and nutritional status of household.

4. Problems in fish processing: high spoilage rate, health hazards and shortage of fuelwood requiring processors to spend more time looking for wood.

5. Shortage of fuelwood is also causing serious deforestation in the areas around the village.

6. Small-scale processors and traders are finding it difficult to raise enough working capital to buy fresh fish.

7. Fish trading is clearly the most profitable economic activity in the sector, and more people are interested in taking it up, including men. However, increasing fish production may decrease prices but increase workloads of traders and processors.

8. Expansion of the fishery may lead to increased pressure on the support services of the community.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

1. Select the different target groups for a proposed project. What criteria were used to distinguish the traget groups and why?

2. What are the perceived needs identified of the selected target groups?

3. Identify the constraints (from a gender prespective) of the different target groups?

4. What are the opportunities for the project to solve these constraints?

5. What further information is needed?

6. Formulate strategies to ensure that the particpation of women, and the role of gender issues is enhanced.