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TABLE 2-7

Timing of herbicide applications by farmers in the Muda irrigation scheme, Malaysia (1988)

* the correct/recommended timing

Source: R. Mohamed and Y. L. Khor, "Survey Report of Farmers' Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice (KAP) on Weed Management in the Muda Agricultural Development Authority (MADA)", Malaysia (March 1988).

TABLE 2-8

Attitudes of Rice Farmers in Penang Towards Rat Control

Source: A. Hamzah and J. Hassan, "Rice Farmers' Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice of Rat Control: A study conducted in Penang, Malaysia", Serdang: Agricultural University of Malaysia, (August 1985).

Table 2-7 also suggests that higher priority should be given to providing farmers with more and better information, motivation and education regarding the correct timing of Ordram use (i.e., 11-15 days after sowing) as more than two-thirds of farmers surveyed did not follow the recommended timing. In terms of timing for Arrosolo use, the data also indicated that more attention should be given to farmers in Districts III and IV of whom only 30 percent applied the herbicide at the correct or recommended time.

KAP survey results regarding farmers' attitudes on rat control in Penang also serve as good illustrations on how non-technological factors can hinder the adoption of recommended technologies. As shown in Table 2-8, superstitious belief was one of the dominant reasons for not controlling rats as only 19 percent of all farmers surveyed disagreed that "rats will take revenge on behalf of their dead friends by causing worse damages". No matter how good the recommended technology for rat control is and how well informed these farmers are on the methods of rat control, if the majority of them had such a superstition, the success of a rat control campaign is unlikely unless attitudinal change efforts to counter-attack or neutralize such a misperception are undertaken effectively as part of the campaign.

More detailed real-life examples of audience analysis and segmentation are provided below. Although these examples are not agriculture-related, they represent clear illustrations of important SEC processes and principles which can be applied to many agricultural extension activities. The following examples are from a population education campaign to increase tubal ligation (female sterilization by tubectomy) acceptors in Bangladesh (Adhikarya, 1983). In analysing and segmenting the target audience of the ligation campaign, findings from baseline/KAP surveys were utilized.

TABLE 2-9

Percentage of Ever-Married Women and Men Under 50 Years of Age Knowing about and Having Undergone Vasectomy and Tubectomy, by Geographical Division, 1981

Source: Compiled from Bangladesh Contraceptive Prevalence Survey, (1981)

TABLE 2-10

Percentage of Current Users Among Ever-Married Women Under 50 Years of Age Practising Specific Family Planning Methods, by Educational Level

Source: Compiled from findings in Bangladesh Contraceptive Prevalence Survey, (1981)

TABLE 2-11

Average Number of Children Ever Born and Number of Living Children Among Ever-Married Women and Men Under 50 Years of Age, by Age Group

Source: Compiled from Bangladesh Contraceptive Prevalence Survey, (1981)

Results of the 1981 Bangladesh Contraceptive Prevalence Survey were used in analysing the target audience for the ligation campaign. The data showed that urban women (5.7 percent) had a higher preference for ligation over rural women (3.5 percent). Also, ligation acceptors from urban areas in 1981 consisted of 36.8 percent of the total number of ligation acceptors, compared with 63.2 percent from rural areas. Considering the national urban-rural proportion, there seemed to be an urban concentration in the ligation programme in Bangladesh. The programme organizers thus suggested greater emphasis and more intensive efforts on reaching and motivating rural women.

Table 2-9 shows the relatively poor performance of the ligation programme in Chittagong Division, both in terms of knowledge level (82.5 percent) and actual practice (1.7 percent) as compared to Khulna and Dhaka Divisions. In Rajshahi Division, while the knowledge level was quite high (94.3 percent), the actual practice level was relatively low (2.8 percent) as compared with Khulna (4.6 percent) and Dhaka (5.5 percent) Divisions. Those findings indicated that additional efforts should seek to increase the audience's information exposure in order to raise their knowledge or awareness levels regarding tubal ligation and to launch specific motivation and persuasion activities to increase the adoption level of tubal ligation in Chittagong and Rajshahi Divisions.

Another interesting finding is reflected in Table 2-10: with both tubectomy and vasectomy (male sterilization) methods, unlike other contraceptive methods, the percentage level of acceptors decreases as the level of education increases. For pill and condom acceptors, on the contrary, the percentage level of acceptors increases with the increase in educational level. While tubectomy seems to be preferred more by urban women, the educational level of those women seems to be low.

The Bangladesh Contraceptive Prevalence Survey of 1981 reported that most of ligation acceptors were in two age groups: 30 to 34 years (7.1 percent) and 35 to 39 years (6.6 percent). However, the data also indicate that among those two age groups the number of living children, as well as the number of ever-born children, was already high (see Table 2-11). To achieve a better demographic impact, it was necessary for the ligation campaign to concentrate on the 20-24 and 25-29 age groups whose average number of living children was lower (1.7 and 2.9 children, respectively) compared with the 30-34 and 35-39 age groups (4.2 and 4.9 children, respectively).

Since a large number of ligation acceptors (43 percent) have five or more children, it seems that most couples want a certain guarantee that they have at least four living children. The data also indicate that a considerable number of ligation acceptors had their last living child between two and five years earlier. It thus appeared that unless couples were convinced that their infants or young children below the age of five had a good chance of surviving, they would be less likely to accept ligation, especially among women who were in the younger age group (e.g., 20-24 or 25-29 years), or at the lower parity group (i. e., having two or three living children).

The 1983 KAP survey conducted by the Bangladesh Association for Voluntary Sterilization (BAYS) reported that 78 percent of BAVS ligation acceptors had two or three sons, compared with only 56 percent who had two or three daughters. It seems that most women were more likely to accept ligation when they already had at least two sons. The data suggest that a "son preference" existed among ligation acceptors in Bangladesh.

On the basis of the above audience analysis, some strategy implications for the ligation campaign were identified:

Another way of analysing and segmenting target groups is by clustering target beneficiaries' perceived problems according to the reasons for not having adopted the recommended campaign messages or suggestions. For instance, the problems can be evaluated in terms of relative degree of difficulty in their solution, thus placing each problem into a scale which has a continuum from "less difficult" to "more difficult". Figure 2-12 illustrates how three different target groups - the Motivated Group, the Sceptical Group and the Resistant Group - in the ligation campaign in Bangladesh were segmented on the basis of their perceived problems of non-adoption of the ligation method (Adhikarya, 1983).

The three different target groups were identified according to three different clusters of non-adoption problems. Message design, development and delivery for these groups were thus facilitated and planned with greater precision based on their specific information needs. For instance, information or messages required for Target Group I (Motivated Group) was more of a logistical nature, i.e., location and opening hours of clinics offering tubectomy services, duration of the operation and recuperation, whether the operation is free and/or compensation will be given for wage loss and travel expenses, etc. For Target

Group II (Sceptical Group) the information had to neutralize or correct their misconceptions regarding ligation, such as the fear of operation, including the side- or after-effects, infection, haemorrhage, pain, fever, intimidating medical equipment, whether a male or female nurse would perform the operation, and others. The information for Target Group III (Resistant Group) had to refute and counterattack certain mistaken beliefs and opinions regarding ligation, vis-a-vis that physical strength or fitness and sex-life would be negatively affected after the operation, that ligation was sinful or prohibited by religion (i.e., Islam), among others.

FIGURE 2-12 Target Groups Clustered According to Identified Problems as Perceived by the Audience Regarding Non-Adoption of Tubectomy

Source: Adhikarya (1983)

If a strategic decision had to be made contingent on limited resources or time, it would seem quite reasonable for the campaign to concentrate on the Motivated Group since the chances of success would appear to be greater with that target group than with the two others. A campaign success with the Motivated Group could thereafter be used by the campaign organizers to persuade policy-makers or funding agencies to provide more resources for dealing with the next (and more difficult) target group, the Sceptical Group, and so on. Audience analysis and segmentation can thus facilitate planning for a phased campaign approach in order to permit less difficult problems to be solved first and the more difficult ones later with increased resources and experience.

An analysis of the target audience characteristics such as access to communication channels, information-seeking habits, preferred information sources, patterns of media usage, communication network interactions and group communication behaviour would also be very important and useful in selecting a cost-effective combination of multi-media channels and in planning the most appropriate use of such a media mix to support the campaign activities. That process of multi-media selection and planning is discussed in greater detail in the next phase.

Phase 5: Multi-media selection

Many campaign experiences and empirical research studies on communication media effects have shown that the use of multiple media channels which include a combination of mass, group and interpersonal communication, if appropriately selected and utilized, is usually more cost-effective than the use of a single communication medium. An important aspect in employing a multi-media approach is the proper selection of available channels in order to avoid redundant or superfluous media usage and to optimize the level of multi-media support required. Thus, a multi-media approach does not mean that all available communication channels should be utilized.

General guidelines for selection of multi-media mix should be based on specific campaign objectives and strategy, KAP levels, etc., as suggested in Figure 2-5. For instance, the degree of emphasis in utilizing mass, interpersonal or group communication channels depends on target beneficiaries' KAP levels and campaign strategy priorities. In developing an appropriate multimedia mix, results of audience analysis should be considered, especially on information-seeking habits, preferred information sources, media access or ownership, media consumption or usage patterns, communication network interactions and group communication behaviour.

The rationale behind the use of a multi-media approach is that a coherent, coordinated, and reinforcing system of communication should be able to address specific but varied information problems and needs of target beneficiaries. In addition, since there is no information medium which is effective for all communication purposes or for all types of target beneficiaries, a multi-media approach is considered as a viable alternative. Another reason for employing a multimedia approach is the need to make the extension system more efficient given the various information, educational and communication objectives of a campaign. For example, as shown in Figure 2-5, if the main purpose of a campaign is create awareness and increase the knowledge level of target beneficiaries, the most efficient and effective way is to utilize mass communication channels and not interpersonal or group communication approaches.

One of the most important factors in employing a multi-media approach effectively is strategic planning on which medium or combination of media should be used for what specific purpose by whom, in order to deliver which specific messages or information to whom. To illustrate more clearly the process of multimedia strategy planning, two examples are recounted here from the Bangladesh Ligation Campaign (Adhikarya, 1983) which were aimed at Target Group I (Motivated Group; Figure 2-13) and Target Group II (Sceptical Group; Figure 2-14).

For Target Group I, as shown in Figure 2-13, there were two main target sub-groups (a) urban women and (b) rural housewives. The multi-media strategy plan suggested that the two sub-groups be reached by two types of intermediaries: urban men, especially industrial (or semi-skilled) labourers and (b) rural men. The intermediaries would be exposed to campaign information or messages through various channels in strategic locations or places where they frequently were to be found, such as in factories, industrial plants, government offices, clinics, local dispensaries and cinemas. Having been exposed to campaign messages, the intermediaries would be expected to communicate with and influence their wives regarding ligation. In addition to the radio spots aimed at both target groups, mini-posters would be pasted on matchboxes which were used in most urban and rural households. The systems activity chart (Figure 2-13) of the multi-media strategy plan describes the selected multi-media inputs, the management or delivery system, and the specific target groups for whom the messages and media were intended.

For Target Group II (see Fig. 2-14), a similar approach as that of Target Group I was proposed: the use of intermediaries such as rural men and female BAVS field agents to reach rural women, and primary school children and BAVS clinic counsellors to reach rural men. Mini-posters would be pasted on coconut-oil bottles and distributed by commercial manufacturers to all parts of Bangladesh, including the most remote rural areas. Since coconut oil is used by a majority of low-income population for their hair, "piggy-backing" on an essential and inexpensive commercial product which has well-established distribution outlets and procedures would likely be more cost-effective than attempting to distribute leaflets or posters in a conventional way.

Since there are many different factors which need to be considered for an appropriate media-media mix, standardized guidelines for a multimedia selection process might prove to be counter-productive. A general approach which might assist in the selection of multi-media channels includes the following:

While the process of multi-media selection is important, the effectiveness of the media chosen also depends on how appropriately the contents to be conveyed by the media are designed, developed, and packaged. The next section discusses the process of message design, development, pretesting and multi-media materials production.

FIGURE 2-13 Multi-Media Campaign Strategy Plan: Ligation Programme Target Group I: Motivated Group

Source: Adhikarya (1983)

FIGURE 2-14 Multi-Media Campaign Strategy Plan: Ligation Programme Target Group II: Sceptical Group

Source: Adhikarya (1983)

Phase 6: Message design, development, pretesting and materials production

The effectiveness of a campaign, to a large extent, depends on the relevance, validity and practicality of the information or messages communicated to the target beneficiaries. Sometimes, even though the main content of the information is useful and technically sound, the campaign information may not be well received or understood by the target beneficiaries if it is not presented properly to them. Campaign messages must be able to attract the attention of the target audience, be easily and clearly understood, and be accurately perceived by them.

In general, it is often assumed that the degree of message effectiveness is a function of the amount of reward that the message offers and the level of efforts required by the audience to interpret, perceive and understand the message. In message design and development processes, given the formula:

then the option that is often more within the control of extension campaign planners is to decrease the level of efforts required by the target audience in interpreting, perceiving and understanding the campaign messages.

Another factor which may influence the effectiveness of a campaign message delivery is the competing messages that try to reach the same target audience. Rural population in many developing countries are "target beneficiaries" of numerous social, economic and political development programmes which tend to overburden them with various types of information. To make matters worse, the messages often conflict with one another, thus further confusing target beneficiaries. For instance, a nutrition campaign message may suggest "establish water/fish ponds" while a health campaign message may recommend "get rid of stagnant water" (for disease control).

Given the "information overload" situation, which has become increasingly common among rural population in many developing countries, a campaign message needs to be strategically "positioned" in order to "stand out" in the crowd. Otherwise a message may go unnoticed and has no impact even though it is technically useful and relevant for the target audience.

Positioning a campaign message strategically and effectively into target beneficiaries' minds requires a well-planned, creative and innovative approach of presenting the message. First of all, the relevance and validity of the message must be ensured. On the basis of a KAP survey results, the broad or general campaign approach (i.e. informational, motivational or action) should be identified, as outlined in Figure 2-5. Then a campaign message focus or theme must be identified according to the specific campaign issue or objective. In a campaign, more than one theme may be necessary, depending on the campaign objectives and information needs.

Once a theme has been identified, messages need to be developed and treated further for effective "packaging", utilizing various social and psychological appeals, in order to make the theme attractive and persuasive. Depending on the campaign objectives and strategy, the following examples of the more commonly used social and psychological appeals can be applied in packaging campaign messages:

Messages which have been packaged with appropriate appeals can be given different treatments according to the needs, objectives, and strategies of a campaign. For instance, a message presentation can be given one or more of the following treatments:

The packaging of messages using the above types of presentation appeals and treatments should also take advantage of, or capitalized on, the particular strength or positive attributes of the intended delivery medium. For instance, the advantages of radio differ from those of a leaflet or a filmstrip, and so on. Each medium has its own features which can be utilized to different effects through appropriate message design with the appropriate appeals and treatments. In general, message appeals using fear-arousal or emotional approach, for example, may be best expressed by a visual medium, whereas fact-giving or conclusion-drawing types of message presentation treatment are more likely to be effective if presented through a printed medium. Therefore, in designing and developing messages, the intended medium to be utilized to deliver the message must be also be taken into consideration.

In order to ensure that target beneficiaries correctly interpret, perceive and understand the meaning of a message, a pretesting exercise would be very useful and should be undertaken. Such an exercise is needed especially if visual materials are intended for an illiterate or lowly-educated audience (i.e. less than three years of formal schooling) who might also be illiterate visually because symbolic representation must be learned and experienced in order to be understood. A message which has been developed and packaged on a prototype basis should be pretested before final production with a small sample of the actual target beneficiaries. A message pretesting exercise can be done in a very short time with limited cost and simple methodology, and may result in a significant improvement in the effectiveness of the message as well as a considerable saving of resources (time, effort and funds). Such formative evaluation of campaign materials (i.e. messages and the delivery medium) prior to the actual implementation of a campaign activity, as suggested in Figure 2-1, should thus be considered as a built-in or integral part in a campaign strategy planning process.

Phase 7: Management planning

A good campaign strategy plan does not automatically result in an effective campaign implementation. Unless a management plan is drawn up to specify how the strategy should be put into operation, a campaign is likely to be unsuccessful because the required logistical arrangements and support materials may not have been made or completed on time or according to the specifications of the strategy plan.

There are at least two major elements with which a management plan should be concerned. The first element deals with the assignment of responsibility regarding the specific tasks to be undertaken to conduct the field implementation of the strategic campaign plan. Detailed guidelines and/or activities in mobilizing the necessary resources (staff, logistical support, funds, etc.) to support the campaign implementation plan should be specified in such a plan. Another element of a management plan deals with the organization and coordination of planned multi-media activities as well as the proposed system of campaign materials distribution and utilization. Guidelines on the specific recipients and locations, as well as the utilization procedures of such multi-media support materials should be provided in the management plan. These guidelines and procedures are not only needed to facilitate campaign field implementation, but also needed for management monitoring purposes.

As discussed in the beginning of this chapter, one of the main objectives of management planning is to provide campaign organizers with a systematic and comprehensive procedure for mobilizing available resources (personnel, finances and time) effectively and efficiently according to the campaign strategy plan. Since campaign implementation depends to a large extent on persons who are mobilized to carry out the different aspects of the campaign activities, a plan for managing training activities according to the specific campaign training needs is also required. The implementation of a multi-media extension campaign can only follow the planned strategy if: (a) the media materials are developed and produced as planned; (b) the combination of campaign media are mobilized and coordinated as suggested; and (c) the campaign support personnel are trained accordingly. A management information system which monitors the campaign programme implementation can help provide campaign organizers with regular and up-to-date information for improving campaign management and performance. But the overall assessment on the impact or effects of campaign implementation has to be determined by a specific, and preferably built-in, campaign programme or summative evaluation.

Phase 8: Training of personnel

While the need for training of campaign personnel is obvious, past campaign experiences have shown that in many instances training has been neglected. The implementation of most campaign activities requires new, different or more specific tasks and responsibilities to be added to the routine workload of the persons who have been mobilized for a campaign. However, in previous campaign activities, it has often been found that a considerable number of the campaign workers were not well-prepared for the specific tasks they were expected to perform. In some cases, they were not even adequately informed about the goals and specific issues of the campaign because their involvement with campaign activities was often conveyed through an administrative order. Such a bureaucratic approach to mobilizing campaign personnel, especially the front-line campaign workers, appears to be an inadequate means for ensuring that campaign workers are motivated and functionally capable of performing the additional tasks required of them to support the planned campaign activities.

Training sessions, or at least orientation meetings, for the various types and needs of campaign workers should be specifically planned and conducted before implementing a campaign. Such training activities are especially important if new or different skills and knowledge are required of campaign workers in performing their tasks effectively. Campaign workers should also be briefed adequately on how to integrate the campaign-related tasks with their routine work programme or activities, in addition to the purpose and value of their participation in the campaign programme.

Phase 9: Field implementation

The most important element in ensuring that a campaign is implemented as planned is the appropriate monitoring and supervision of campaign workers' performance and the extension campaign delivery system. Such a task can be facilitated by a good management information system which is able to provide campaign organizers with rapid feedback on various important campaign activities and thus can help in readjusting or changing campaign strategies if considered necessary.

Another important task in campaign field implementation is the proper coordination of various activities which sometimes need to be carried out simultaneously. Coordination linkages must be carefully developed, especially if several agencies are involved in executing different aspects of the campaign activities. One of the most frequent problems found in campaign filed implementation is the untimely delivery, and often unavailability, of inputs or services required for the adoption of recommended technologies or action by the target beneficiaries who have been motivated and persuaded by the campaign. Such a problem may lead to a "frustration of rising expectations" among some members of the motivated target beneficiaries which in turn might undermine the credibility of the campaign recommendations and campaign workers.

Effective programme implementation also requires proper execution of activities within the estimated time period. A delay in one of the usually interdependent multi-media activities of a campaign may have chain-reaction effects. In planning the implementation of campaign activities, a realistic time estimate for the completion of an activity required to support the campaign should therefore be considered.

Phase 10: Process documentation and summative evaluation

Many people who are involved in rural development programmes have increasingly realized the need for, and the importance of conducting a summative evaluation. The main purpose of such an evaluation is to assess the performance, effects and impact of a campaign. Unlike formative evaluation which is normally conducted at the planning stage or early stages of campaign implementation, a summative evaluation is almost always conducted near or after the conclusion of a campaign. Whereas formative evaluation findings are often utilized to improve campaign strategy or performance during its implementation, the results of summative evaluation are normally used to determine whether the campaign has accomplished it objectives and if an improved or expanded campaign should be undertaken as a follow-up programme.

To ensure that a summative evaluation is conducted properly and that its results are relevant to the campaign objectives, summative evaluation activities should be considered as a built-in component and an integral part of the campaign process. The findings of such a summative evaluation should be used as inputs to formulate new or improved campaign objectives or to help set up new baselines or benchmarks for future campaigns of a similar nature. As can be seen in Figure 2-1, it is the information feedback resulting from the summative evaluation which completes the "loop" of the campaign planning process by feeding in relevant evaluation findings back to Phase 1 of such a process.

It is also useful to conduct a process documentation which points out critical issues and decision-making requirements in undertaking the SEC activities. Through a chronological description and analyses of successful or less-successful decision-making process made during planning, implementation, and management of the campaign, important lessons can be learned, and technical and management operation generalizations can be suggested, for future replications and expansion of similar activities.

Regardless of the outcome of a process documentation and summative evaluation exercise, the lessons learned (both positive and negative aspects) are valuable in designing or planning future campaigns which have similar objectives. Therefore, efforts to disseminate and share summative evaluation results of a strategic extension campaign (SEC) among extension planners, managers, and trainers should be encouraged and pursued. The publication of this book, for instance, is an attempt to share the experiences and results of SEC activities.

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