3. BACKGROUND

3.1 AQUACULTURE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

During the period 1990 – 94, total aquaculture production in southern Africa varied from 13 000 to 17 000 tonnes, for a total estimated value of USD 18 to 25 million (Annex 4). On a weight basis, this represents from 39 to 54 percent of the total aquaculture production in sub-Saharan Africa. In fact, Zambia, Tanzania and South Africa are actually among the leading countries in Africa, with actual productions above 4 000 t each.

For the SADC Region, about 60 percent of the total aquaculture production in 1994 consisted of marine animals and plants, the rest being made of freshwater and diadromous fish (trout) especially (Annex 5).

3.1.1 Inland aquaculture

Statistics. In 1994, inland aquaculture production in the SADC Region amounted to about 5 700 t¹. The major producer (Annex 5) was by far Zambia (4 930 t) followed by South Africa (1 227 t). Other countries produced from 226 t (Malawi) to 4 t (Namibia). No aquaculture production was reported from Angola and Botswana.

Major freshwater species. In the region, they are trout and tilapias (O. andersonii, O. macrochir, T. rendalliespecially). Some African catfish (C. gariepinus) and common carp (C. carpio) are also produced. Freshwater prawns (Crustaceans, M. rosenbergii) are produced in Malawi and Zimbabwe. Crocodiles are not only found in South Africa (70 t), but also in Zambia and Zimbabwe.

Extensive, subsistence-oriented fish farming. In most SADC countries, the culture techniques for small-scale farmers have never been identified. Standard techniques developed in research stations have been extended to the farmers. In most cases, these techniques have revealed themselves as inappropriate and they have been applied without giving expected results. Such extensive, subsistence-oriented and small-scale fish farming produces mainly tilapias in more than 30 000 small (less than 300 sq.m) earthen ponds. It is a secondary activity, relatively well integrated with small-scale rural agriculture. Management is at a low level and annual yields average less than 10 kg/ 100 sq.m. or a little above the natural production of water. Cool temperatures have negative effects both on growth/production and on reproduction of tilapias.

Evidence actually exists in ALCOM showing that such type of production system in which fish growth depends on available natural food may readily expand when:

• there is land, water and household labour available;
• there is an extension system reaching rural farmers with a flexible message based on resources available on-farms; and
• there is a perceived need for fish as food/relish or for cash income.

In the SADC Region in particular, farming households minimize their risks when starting fish farming. Resources are not realocated from other activities. Instead, fish is added to their overall production, as another crop and by using idle resources. Pond construction takes place during slack periods in agriculture, using mainly household labour.

Extensive to semi-intensive small-scale commercial fish farming. The next logical development would be that some of these small-scale, subsistence-oriented farmers (and new entrants) adopt a more intensive culture system, using resources with higher opportunity costs. Such development seems more probable when there exists a general trend towards diversification and intensification of agricultural production. A semi-intensive production based on increased natural production through organic fertilisation as well as on cheap supplementary feeding is then preferred. Most of the fish production is marketed either on-farm or at neighbouring markets. Tilapia and earthen ponds still remain the most common components of such systems.

Semi-intensive to intensive large-scale commercial farming. It is still a small but rather well established sub-sector in Malawi, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The production system increasingly relies on improved fish foods and water exchange as intensification increases, in ponds, raceways and floating net cages. Several kinds of fish are produced, mainly tilapias but also common carp and African catfish, as well as rainbow trout in cooler climates. The fish farms, owned by large companies or part of large scale-agriculture farms, benefit from well-established existing resources (machinery, labour and capital). There is no evident production trend in this market-driven sub-sector. There is little expansion and it seems to be rather stable. A notable exception is the recent collapse of the newly established catfish industry (10 t in 1987; 1 150 t in 1991; and 50 t since 1993), as a consequence of inadequate planning, inadequate marketing expertise/strategies, consumer resistance, increased cost of formulated feed and near-static farm gate price.

Potential for freshwater fish farming development. During the last few years, FAO/FIRI has undertaken a study based on a geographical information system to identify areas with the best potential for warmwater fish farming of tilapia and/or African catfish in African countries². Results show that for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole, a maximum of 7.8 percent of the continental surface is suitable or optimum for warmwater fish farming. Annex 6 provides detailed estimates of existing potentials both for subsistence-oriented and commercial warmwater fish farming in sub-Saharan Africa, in the SADC Region and in individual SADC countries. For the latter, these estimates are summarized in Table 1, which clearly shows that for both these types of freshwater aquaculture:

• greatest potential exists in Angola, Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia, followed rather further below by Zimbabwe.
• a rather small potential exists in Malawi and South Africa.
• a very small potential exists in Swaziland and Botswana.
• there is practically no potential in Namibia and Lesotho

¹ All official statistical data are minimum estimates for two main reasons:

• most administrations responsible for aquaculture in the region do not have strong statistical collection and collation services yet.
• aquaculture is still mostly rural and oriented towards meeting local nutritional needs; much of the fish production is either consumed directly by the farmer and his extended family or bartered/sold within the village community, without any record being kept.

² Ref: Kapetsky, 1994

Table 1 Total potential areas for warmwater fish farming in the SADC Region

3.1.2 Marine and brackishwater aquaculture

Statistics: In 1994, marine aquaculture production in the SADC Region amounted to about 10 000 t. The major producers (Annex 5) were Tanzania (5 000 t) and South Africa (3 595 t). Namibia produced only 1 345 t, while the two remaining coastal states (Angola and Mozambique) did not report any production.

Major Marine Species:In the SADC Region they are:

• seaweeds (Eucheumaand Gracilariamostly) in Namibia, Tanzania and South Africa;
• molluscs (mussels and oysters esp.) in South Africa and Namibia;
• some crustaceans (shrimps) in South Africa.

Trends:The most striking marine aquaculture development has been the remarkable expansion of seaweed culture (Eucheumasp.) in Zanzibar (Tanzania). Between 1988 and 1991, the annual yield has increased from practically zero to 4 800 t, stabilizing since around 4 500 to 5 000 t. wet weight, for a total value of about USD 1 million. (Annex 4). Results of academic research have been taken over by commercial companies which have established an efficient extension service and a reliable market. Production is highly commercial although carried out by small-scale female operators who have considerably improved their household standard of living.

In Namibia, the marine culture of high-value products such as oysters and mussels has expanded, as well as seaweed farming.

In South Africa³, the farming of mussels, oysters, abalone and shrimps are developing or expected to develop rapidly in the near future:

• Between 1985 and 1992, mussel production has jumped from 80 t to 1 086 t. The industry actually employs more than 400 people and contributes about 56 percent to the total aquaculture production;
• A hatchery for the production of oyster spat now supplies about 50 percent of the total demand. New farming technologies have been developed which should contribute to an expansion of the industry;
• Abalone farming is relatively new but expanding on the south-west and south-east Cape coasts. At least four hatcheries have been established to produce seed animals. Most operations are backed by large fishing companies.
• Shrimp farming is carried out in relatively warmer water conditions in northern Natal. It is expected to expand in the near future, if the right macro-economic conditions are present.

In general, there is an increasing interest in marine aquaculture both from Governments (research and planning) and the private sector.

Potential for Marine Aquaculture Development: This potential in the SADC Region may be summarized as follows:

• Best potential along the protected coastlines of Tanzania and Mozambique. Seaweed farming could spread from Zanzibar to other parts of Tanzania and to Northern Mozambique provided extension and marketing can be established.
• Limited potential in Angola, Namibia and South Africa because of unprotected shoreline and limited sheltered sites.

³ Ref: Hecht, 1994.

3.2 CULTURE-BASED RESERVOIR FISHERIES

In the SADC countries lying south of Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia and Angola, the main potential for increased fish production is related to the numerous artificial small water bodies (SWB) or reservoir/dams, built mostly for irrigation and cattle watering. Most have been stocked with fish in the past but still remain largely underutilized by the local communities as a potential source of protein. Aquaculture development potential in these countries is linked to these SWB, but particularly to those which do not dry out completely each year.

There is very little knowledge about African small water bodies in general, and for the SADC Region in particular:

• in most countries, fishery statistical systems do not function properly even for the larger water bodies;
• SWBs represent a large burden because of their dispersed nature and because they are so numerous;
• very little limnological, biological and socio-economic research has been carried out on SWB fisheries and their neighbouring communities.

As a result, potential fish yield of small water bodies and, in particular, maximum sustainable yields may only be roughly estimated. None of the existing predictive models have been adequately tested on SADC SWBs although some have applied. A high priority is for an index of fishery potential that can be easily used. Another important need is to characterize SWBs as to their best aquatic uses, whether for fisheries, aquaculture, or a combination of the two.

It has been illustrated that in many cases the fish biomass in small water bodies is much greater than it is in large ones. A higher fish biomass obviously means a higher potential fish yield. Data obtained from a limited variety of small water bodies in southern Africa show that the mean annual yield of fish was 329 kg/ha, some 3.6 times higher than the average of 17 intensively-fished large to very large African lakes and reservoirs⁴. Estimated yields⁵ have been given ranging from 30 to 200 kg/ha/year for shallow and small impoundments. Calculated yields agree with an estimate of 50 kg/ha/yr suggested for productive dams⁶. It has also been reported⁷ that estimates from 10 to 70 kg/ha/yr are acceptable for reservoirs in Lesotho. Yield from hook and line fishing in reservoirs from Zimbabwe⁸ can be rather high, 100 to 300 kg/ha/yr being common. In Annex 7, data on fishery productivity of some small water bodies in southern Africa are given.

The productivity of small water bodies is governed by a wide range of physico-chemical processes and it is difficult to make accurate predictions. Even though the accuracy of some estimates might be questioned, they highlight the considerable importance of small water bodies in Africa. In spite of this potential, small water bodies limnology and fish biology have never been adequately studied. This is because the production from individual water bodies is relatively small compared to that from larger ones, and few of them are able to support full-time fishers.

An inventory of small water bodies for the SADC Region is now underway at ALCOM. A database has been established for five SADC member countries (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Eastern Province Zambia and Zimbabwe). Other countries are still under investigation. A summary of the inventory as of June 1, 1996 is provided in Annex 8. It shows that the best potential exists in Zimbabwe where nearly 11 000 SWB for a total area of 121 555 ha have been identified. But good potential also exist in the other four countries studied to-date.

Recently, Governments in the SADC Region have shown an increased interest in utilizing their numerous reservoirs. There is fishing on most of the reservoirs with the larger ones sustaining small-scale commercial fishing operators, such as for example in Tanzanian Morogoro Region.

Systematic efforts to enhance fish production are limited to cage culture (e.g. in Zimbabwe and Namibia) and to occasional stocking (e.g. following severe drought). Most fishing is for subsistence purposes, often carried out by women and youth using hook/line and traps (in Zimbabwe it is estimated that 50% of the fishing is done by women). The increased interest in small water bodies calls for the assessment of their potential, experimental activities for enhancing their fish production, and management strategies. These are likely to result in active interventions for a more intensive use of small water bodies within the next five years. Management issues such as ownership, access and control over the scattered resources are also important considerations.

⁴ Ref: Marshall & Maes, 1994.

⁵ Ref: Dunn, 1989.

⁶ Ref: van der Mheen, 1993a.

⁷ Ref: Tilquin & Lechela, 1995.

⁸ Ref: van der Mheen, 1993b.

3.3 AQUACULTURE INSTITUTIONS IN SADC REGION

Institutional responsibilities at national level for aquaculture in the SADC Region varies from one country to another (Table 2). In most cases, it lies (at least in part) within the ministry responsible for Agriculture (8/11 countries). Such organisation is fully justified for small scale aquaculture by the fact that the latter activity shares with agriculture (including livestock) target group (small - householder) and resources (land, labour, water, fertilizer, feed ingredients), even markets in most cases.

It has also other advantages such as:

• to greatly facilitate integration of small-scale fish farming into the existing farming systems;
• to greatly reduce costs related to extension services while simultaneously increasing their efficiency;
• to enable improved management of water resources, for example through close collaboration with the institutions responsible for soil conservation and agro-forestry.

In other countries, responsibility for aquaculture development lies in a Ministry unrelated to agricultural development. Collaboration becomes then more difficult, in particular at small-holder's and village levels. Policy statements favouring small-scale aquaculture integration into water resources conservation projects as well as into food security-related projects can efficiently improve trans-ministerial knowledge.

Table 2 Institutional responsibility for aquaculture at national level

Aquaculture is a young and small sub-sector in all SADC countries. Consequently, the institutions are generally weak, although less so in countries with important inland capture fisheries (e.g. Malawi, Zambia) and countries with an established aquaculture industry (South Africa).

Few countries have explict policies and plans for aquaculture development based on thorough investigations of physical and economic potential. Such planning is under way in Malawi and Namibia. Zambia and Zimbabwe have requested FAO assistance in sectoral planning. In South Africa, the producer associations have requested the preparation of an Aquaculture Development Plan which is underway.

Legislation for inland and marine aquaculture is generally not elaborated. Existing legislation relates more to conservation than development of the sector. In Lesotho, FAO is supporting the elaboration of legislation with consultancy services. Legislation is being elaborated in Botswana relating to ownership, control and exploitation of small water bodies.

Training facilities exist for extension workers (e.g. Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Tanzania). Higher level training specialized in aquaculture exists only in Malawi (Bunda College of Agriculture, Lilongwe) and South Africa (e.g. Rhodes University, Grahamstown).

Research facilities have suffered from the general decline of the governmental fish farming stations. Adequately functioning research centres exist only in Malawi, Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa (inland aquaculture) and Tanzania, Namibia and South Africa (mariculture). Mozambique Zambia and Zimbabwe have stations which with some rehabilitation and upgrading could function for aquaculture research. Few universities have aquaculture research on their programmes. Bunda College in Malawi is doing research connected with masters' training in collaboration with ICLARM. The Africa University in Mutare, Zimbabwe has built research and fingerling production facilities. The Sokoine University in Morogoro, Tanzania is at present building such facilities. The Institute for Marine Sciences in Zanzibar has facilities for mariculture research as has the Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources' stations in Luderitz and Swakopmund in Namibia. Excellent research facilities exist in South Africa, particularly advanced for marine species aquaculture.

Extension services vary in the region. Zimbabwe has a functioning agriculture extension system (AGRITEX), which includes aquaculture. Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia are expanding their extension services through collaboration with the agriculture extension systems and with the fisheries staff functioning as subject matter specialists.

Libraries and documentation centres exist in the administrative units for fisheries and aquaculture. These have suffered from financial restrictions and are often not up-to-date in their collections. The maintenance of the libraries also suffers from lack of trained staff and equipment such as computers. There are good collections in Zimbabwe (Dept. of National Parks and Wildlife Management), Malawi (Dept. of Fisheries), Namibia (Min. of Fisheries/Marine Resources) and South Africa (Rhodes University). ALCOM's library in Harare, Zimbabwe has a regional function (see Section 3.9.8). There are no established networks between aquaculture documentation centres. Linkages with regional and international databases are not yet fully established.

Because of the small size of the sector and economically harsh times in the region, it's unlikely that aquaculture institutions will considerably expand in the short to medium term period. The fisheries administrations need to find ways to increase their impact with limited resources. The attempt to engage agriculture extension systems in aquaculture is one such step. Others may involve a review of the most crucial tasks and a focus of resources on these. Unorthodox solutions to institutional problems, for example by engaging the private sector (such as in South Africa for example), and NGOs (e.g. Tanzania), are needed for governmental institutions to provide essential services (e.g. research, extension) to the sector.

In some countries, institutional credit is available to large-scale commercial aquaculture enterprises. However, as yet there is no institutional credit facility for the small-scale aquaculture sector because of lack of collateral and knowledge on the part of the institution on assessment of credit needs in this sector in particular.

Fish farmer associations have been established on different levels, for example among small rural producers in Zambia and large-scale commercial producers in South Africa and Zimbabwe. There are, as yet, few attempts to establish networks and channels for marketing information by the private sector

3.4 SOCIAL SETTING IN SADC REGION

Small-scale aquaculture/fisheries development in most SADC countries has still primarily social objectives such as:

• food security and improvement of the nutritional status of rural people;
• generation of supplement cash income;
• diversification of activities, mostly as a risk aversion strategy; and
• creation of employment especially in rural communities where opportunities for economic activities are limited.

Nutritional Status. Most recent nutritional data for SADC member countries are given in Table 3. They can be summarized as follows:

• Total calorie supply is rather below the ideal minimum value (2300 Kcal/cap/day) in Mozambique and Angola in particular, but also in all other SADC countries except South Africa and Swaziland.
• Animal protein intakes are particularly deficient in Malawi and Mozambique, but also in all other SADC countries except Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland where they still exceed by little the ideal minimum value (20 g/cap/day)
• Fish protein intakes are practically nil in Lesotho, Swaziland, Mozambique and Zimbabwe; they are very low in Botswana, Malawi and South Africa; they still remain far below the ideal minimum value (10 g/cap/day) in all other SADC countries.

Table 3 Nutritional data for SADC Region in 1993 (excl. Mauritius)

Source: Calorie supply from FAO/ESS database; all other from FAO/FIDS database

In several areas, malnutrition affects primarily rural populations, children in particular. Recent studies indicate that incidences of malnutrition are rising, for example in rural Zambia, in the Communal lands of Zimbabwe and in Manica Province, Mozambique. Since the majority of fish farmers and fishers in the areas where ALCOM is active are primarily eating the fish they produce/catch, the value of such high quality protein is likely to be significant.

Food security. Recent investigations have shown that food insecurity exists for most rural households for at least a few months every year, in particular in areas affected by unusual drought conditions. During such periods of near-famine, even the presence of cattle might not provide relief, being more a status symbol in certain areas than a food source. Even very small amounts of fish available locally can then have a major nutritional impact.

Communal resource management. In recent years, communal natural resources, such as wildlife, have been promoted. In Zimbabwe for example, various Government institutions and programmes are actively working on decentralising authority of natural resources down to district and local communities level, under a policy coined “Proper Authority Status” and “Producer Community Status”. This status involves “Limited Access Regimes”, which are based on the recognition of the immediate communities “right” to be the first to exploit a natural resource. They imply that the communities are also responsible for taking care of the resource.

At present, the legal and jurisdiction issues concerning communal resource management for the small water bodies (water, surrounding land, forests and fisheries resource use) are not clearly defined. The procedures and rules regulating the sustainable exploitation of theses resources need to be analyzed jointly with local and national institutions as well as traditional heads and communities themselves, in order to avoid contradictions or overlapping. In some of these small water bodies, the “open access regime” has survived because communities are being left out of (more) equitable distribution of resources; in others, the access is restricted.

Forward looking fisheries management strategies still need to be developed, experimented and applied in the context of SWB. They need to be accompanied by:

• a review of the Park and Wildlife Act (or equivalent) in all the participating countries
• a systematic review of the legal and jurisdiction issues of SWB in all participating countries. Zimbabwe could be used as a case study, existing policies being well documented.

3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

The environmental setting under which aquaculture development takes place within the SADC Region is far from homogeneous:

• only five countries have access to coastal and marine resources, all the others being landlocked; the relative quality of these resources greatly varies according to their physical geography, latitude and prevalent oceanic currents (see Section 3.1.2);
• climatological conditions range from tropical to temperate, according to latitude and/altitude;
• water temperatures vary accordingly, dangerously reaching the lower lethal temperature for warmwater tilapia species/strains during wintertime;
• rainfall varies greatly not only seasonally as expected (dry vs. rainy season) but also from year to year (dry year vs normal year), as discussed below.

Drought in the SADC Region. Severe droughts have been experienced in recent years which have greatly affected agriculture in general and inland fish farming in particular. Some countries, and some parts of these countries have been more affected than others. ALCOM field programme has been recently disrupted such as for example in 1995 during Phase III under review, in Manica Province, Mozambique and in Eastern Province, Zambia in particular.

To illustrate the drought problem in the region, data on national rainfall indices have been assembled in Annex 9 for years 1973 and 1977 to 1993, as well as long term national averages for 1960 – 1993⁹. By definition, the rainfall index is the national average of the total annual precipitation weighted, for each meteorological station, by its long-term average. It shows a good correlation with crop yields. For Southern Africa where crops are planted late in the year, this index is calculated based on rainfall observed between July (year T-1) to June (year T).

Severe drought years during the period 1973–1993 for the SADC countries are highlighted in Annex 9, pointing out to 1973 (6/10 countries), 1982 (6/10), 1987 (5/10), 1991 (5/10) and 1992 (9/10) as prevalent dry years. Less prevalent drought happened as shown, without any definite cyclic pattern.

During the period 1960–1993 (34 years), relatively severe drought conditions were observed in the SADC countries excluding Mauritius with variable frequencies (Table 4).

If three sub-periods of 9 to 13 years each are considered, it becomes clear that relative drought frequency has greatly increased in the region during the last 12 years (1982–93). Countries most affected by such increased frequency are Zimbabwe, South Africa and Botswana; affected also but to a lesser degree were Mozambique, Namibia and Swaziland.

⁹ Ref: Gommes & Petrassi, 1994.

Table 4 Frequency of relatively severe droughts in SADC countries, period 1960 – 1993

Rem¹No severe drought reported

3.6 NATIONAL POLICIES FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

A review of the national policies/plans and policy statements of SADC member countries¹⁰ reveals the following:

• The importance of fish as food is increasingly being recognized, even in countries where fish is not a major component of the diet.
• The contribution of fish to food security is highlighted.
• Most governments do not, however, have an explicit development policy or plans for fisheries and aquaculture. Malawi, Namibia, South Africa and Zambia are now actively correcting such deficiencies.
• Where policy statements exist they are mostly linked to agriculture.
• Policy statements often refer to fish as a provider of “cheap” protein, as a source of jobs and of foreign exchange earnings, the latter especially for marine fisheries.
• The links between national policies/plans and programmes actually implemented are not well established. There is a general need to harmonise policies, plans, programmes/projects and other interventions.
• The ensure sustainability of aquaculture development, close links with policies/plans for the agriculture sector need to be strengthened.
• The potential roles of the private sector and of NGOs are not recognised or elaborated in policy statements and development plans. Consequently, mechanisms for consultation with “target groups” are not sufficiently established.

¹⁰ Ref: Anon, 1994.

3.7 REGIONAL POLICIES FOR AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT

3.7.1 SADC and its overall organisation

The Southern African Development Coordination Conference SADCC was established in 1980 and was changed into the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) in 1992 to reflect the aspiration for economic integration in the region. Originally composed of nine member countries, SADC today groups 12 countries, following the recent membership of Namibia (1990), South Africa (1994) and Mauritius (1995).

The SADC organisation is decentralised (Annex 10). Individual countries are responsible for coordinating specific sub-sectors, such as:

• Food Security (Zimbabwe)
• Forestry/Inland Fisheries/Wildlife (Malawi)
• Marine Fisheries and Resources (Namibia)

The overall coordination of the eight sub-sectors related to food production/security rested with the Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources (FANR) unit in Zimbabwe. This SADC structure is now being reviewed mainly to take into account the recent integration of South Africa and Mauritius. A general reorganisation should be proposed to the next Council of Ministers in August 1997.

It is of interest to note that the Food Security sub-sector (Zimbabwe) has 11 approved projects, some of which are currently under implementation. Among these projects, the following are of direct interest:

• for small-scale aquaculture: irrigation;
• for SWB regional potential: Early Warning and Remote Sensing;
• information.

3.7.2 SADC Fisheries Sub-Sector Policy

The overall aim of SADC's fisheries development programme is to promote and expand fish production to attain regional self-sufficiency, increase supplies of animal protein by reducing post-harvest losses, and create employment to increase income. This is valid for fisheries (inland and marine) as well as for aquaculture (inland, brackish water and marine).

The SADC's Programme of Action states that:

• fish is a natural resource that has great importance for the production of good quality protein;
• management and utilisation of fish resources should aim at maximising sustainable yield from natural waters;
• self-sufficiency will be attained by
  • increased productivity of marine and inland fisheries through improved techniques;
  • integration of aquaculture with agriculture and other rural development programmes wherever socially and economically feasible;
  • utilisation of under-exploited species;
  • improvement of fish processing, distribution and marketing for local and export demands.

The SADC fishery policy statements reflect the policies of member countries.

3.7.3 The SADC Inland Fisheries Sub-Sector

The SADC Inland Fisheries Sub-Sector (IFS) has the following general responsibilities:

• establishing/maintaining consultation with member states and secretariat;
• establishing/maintaining effective liaison with staff of international cooperating partners in the development/implementation of sectoral programmes/projects;
• providing leadership and technical services for the advancement of SADC programme of action in their respective sectors;

Its Programme of Action and objectives were broadened in 1993 to include action on six constraints to fisheries development, considered to be common throughout the SADC Region. The following Strategic Programmes were approved by the coordinating sector (FANR):

• training and education;
• improved resource management and control mechanisms;
• integration of environmental protection and development;
• improved knowledge of the resource base;
• development of relevant industries, markets and marketing;
• focused research.

It is on these bases that the IFS Technical Coordination Unit (IFSTCU) has been organised in Malawi to implement projects supporting at least one of these Strategic Programmes, under the umbrella of the Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Natural Resources (Annex 11). It is to be noted that IFSTCU operations do not include funding, formulation and active implementation of national/subnational projects.

Currently, IFSTCU is heavily supported since 1989, by Icelandic bilateral assistance (ICEIDA). Actually, it mostly provides for two professional staff (programme manager; information officer), support for coordination (USD 100 000/y) and training/scholarships, and technical assistance/vessel/running costs for Lake Malawi research at Monkey Bay. Local staff, offices and some running costs are contributed by Government of Malawi.

There are three functional programmes:

1. The Regional Fisheries Training Programme (RFTP)

   Initiated in 1991, it is now well developed and structured, with strong linkages with Bunda and Mwepwe Colleges. It aims at upgrading fishery training, improving cooperation among existing fishery training institutions (diploma/college levels), and ensuring sustainability of training programmes in the region. It patronised both full time and short courses in inland fisheries and aquaculture, including planning/management (University of Namibia). It will soon assess regional training needs and regional training capacity. One full time Malawi staff is in charge.

2. The Regional Fisheries Information Programme (RFIP)

   It is presently evolving into a well-structured programme with the technical assistance of a qualified Icelandic librarian. A Malawi staff is being recruited to head the programme but it may be difficult to locate a fully qualified librarian, as no such speciality exists at the University of Malawi.

   Since 1995, the SADC Inland Fisheries Information Centre functions on a modest scale. It intends to collect, store and disseminate information relevant to inland fisheries and aquaculture. Its main interest will focus on SADC documents and grey literature. It hopes to create and coordinate the Inland Fisheries Information Network (IFIN), establishing formal links with information officers or departments responsible for fisheries information within national inland fisheries institutions, in each of the SADC countries. It might also oversee the regional project Computerisation of Fisheries Production Statistics (SADCFISH 954-002), approved but not yet financed. It is obvious that RFIP still lacks experience in the field of information.

   It appears that aquaculture information would be included in the general SADC Inland Fisheries Newsletter rather than be given full attention in a newsletter such as the actual ALCOM News.

3. Regional Fisheries Research/Development Programme (RFRDP)

   It is still the least well structured element of IFSTCU. A Malawi staff should be recruited in late 1996 to head the programme and activate projects activities. These are presently being examined in detail.

3.8 DONOR POLICIES AND SUPPORT TO THE AQUACULTURE SECTOR

3.8.1 SADC Fisheries Development Programme

SADC/IFS (Section 3.7.3) has 18 projects which have been approved by the SADC Council of Ministers. Seven of these have been fully funded, including RFTP. Two of the funded projects relate directly to aquaculture development, ALCOM Phase II (1992–94) and Integrated Fish-cum-Duck Farming in Lesotho (Phases I and II).

RFTP has nine sub-projects, three of which relate directly to aquaculture.

3.8.2 Donor policies and support

According to the UNDP/Resource Mobilisation Unit (1990 Donor Profiles), 18 donor countries focused in 1990 their support through Governments on rural development/nutrition, agriculture and food security. Support through NGOs related mainly to rural development and nutrition.

A recent study by the Working Group on the Future of ALCOM¹¹ concluded that:

• the number of projects to support aquaculture development has drastically decreased since 1989.
• early projects were implemented as part of fisheries projects, before being implemented as autonomous projects; the present trend is integration with agriculture and rural development projects.
• socio-economic and economic expertise has been increasingly employed in projects, following the UNDP/FAO/NORAD Thematic Evaluation of Aquaculture published in 1987.

Apart from the ALCOM Programme (Sweden and Belgium funded projects), there are now three on-going regional projects and 15 on-going national projects supporting aquaculture development in SADC Region (Annex 12). Most of these projects terminate in 1997, except JICA assistance as well as possibly ICEIDA support to SADC and GTZ/MAGFAD assistance to Malawi, both of them under actual evaluation.

In Zambia, the World Bank-supported-ZAREP programme for agricultural extension is gradually being replaced by the 5-year Agricultural Sector Investment Programme (ASIP) also World Bank financed. It will ensure that previous collaboration of DoA with DoF/ALCOM Programme in the Eastern Province be reinforced for sustainable small-scale fish farming development.

¹¹ Anon., 1994.

3.9 COMPLEMENTARY PROGRAMMES

3.9.1 ICLARM Africa Aquaculture Project

This project entitled “Research for the Development of Tropical Aquaculture Appropriate for Implementation in Rural Africa” is based in Zomba, Malawi since 1986. Financed by GTZ until 1995, it is now functioning on a reduced scale and searching for additional funding. Activities have practically stopped, including research at the Domasi National Aquaculture Centre farm and activities at the Aquaculture Documentation Centre.

The objectives of the project were to develop, in collaboration with African research institutions and scientists, aquaculture technologies appropriate to conditions in rural Africa; to strengthen aquaculture research, training and education as well as information exchange among African and Asian institutions; to train African researchers and trainers to support aquaculture research and national development; to conduct research on fish species and aquaculture systems using on-farm available resources; and to complement efforts to extend low input sustainable aquaculture to smallholders, by farmer participation research and the development of methods of measuring the impact of their adoption of aquaculture.

A memorandum of understanding between FAO and ICLARM (HQ Manila, Philippines) regarding ICLARM collaboration with ALCOM was signed in 1992–93. This has resulted in exchanges of information, in particular between ALCOM library and ICLARM Documentation centre. When the latter lost its database following the breakdown of its computer, ALCOM provided a copy from which the original database could be reestablished in Malawi.

3.9.2 FARMESA Programme

The “Farm-level Applied Research Methods in East and Southern Africa” (FARMESA) Programme (GCP/RAF/334/SWE) is funded for four years (USD 5 515 756) by Sweden and implemented by FAO since July 1996. Headquartered in Harare, Zimbabwe, it is active in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Other countries such as Botswana, Mozambique and South Africa might become associated in the future.

This new programme is built of experiences gained from other SIDA-funded regional programmes:

• the Farming Systems Programme (1990–1995);
• Agricultural Operations Technology for Small-holders in Eastern and Southern Africa (AGROTEC);
• Plant protection Improvement Programme in Southern Africa (PPIP); and
• ALCOM.

These programmes shared the same target group, applied similar methodologies and for most of them, shared the same implementing agency (FAO). They were all active in several of the SADC member countries.

The programme is mainly concerned with addressing the problems arising from “top down” approaches to smallholder farming by improving the processes through which new technologies are identified, adapted and applied. It also seeks to increase the effectiveness of agricultural policy analysis and formulation by directing attention to the farm and community levels. The primary focus is upon techniques that allow field workers, researchers and policy analysts to collaborate with farmers in solving their immediate farming problems. To be of any use to farmers, these new approaches must be tested and applied in a field context while working with them at each stage of the process.

The major functions of the project are direct support and training. FARMESA seeks to develop human and institutional capacity through field action, training and networking activities. Field site activities will be proposed by Technical Committees corresponding to the disciplines within the four previous programmes. The activities will be prioritised by National Coordinating Committees, each assisted by a National Facilitator. The overall project is directed by a Regional Coordinating Committee of representatives from participating countries and is managed by a Central Coordinating Unit located in Harare, Zimbabwe.

Close linkages are planned with at least the following projects:

• regional soil conservation unit: participating approach focused on farm-household system;
• forests, trees and people project (FAO): involvement of rural people and application of social science methods;
• farmer-centred agricultural resources management (FAO): field site activities in eight Asian countries;
• gender, biodiversity and local knowledge for strengthening agriculture and rural development (Norway/FAO): local knowledge systems, gender issues, information generation/dissemination, fieldwork; Tanzania, Swaziland, Mozambique and Zimbabwe.

The integration of ALCOM into FARMESA was discussed at the 8th ALCOM Steering Committee with no positive response. Later, efforts to further discuss such a possibility never reached positive results.

3.9.3 Regional Remote Sensing Project

The SADC Regional Remote Sensing Project (RRSP), financed by the Netherlands and executed by FAO, is now in its second phase (1994–97). It is housed in the SADC Food Security Technical and Administration Unit (FSTAU) in Harare.

The main objective is to strengthen national and regional capabilities in the area of remote sensing and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) for use in early warning and food security. This is being achieved through the establishment of an operational information system. The approach taken is through effective, PC-based image processing and modern telecommunication techniques.

The project is also developing a uniform regional standard vector data set for SADC. These should include information on national and two-level subnational boundaries, elevation, infrastructure, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, major growing areas, forests, protected areas and cultural sites. Final version will be made available on CD-ROM and will have a wide range of users in the Food Security and Environmental Sectors.

An active collaboration has been developed with ALCOM in relation to the SWB Regional Database which is being developed.

3.9.4 Food Security Database Project

This is a SADC Project financed and executed by FAO under its Technical Assistance Programme (TCP/RAF/4563 for USD 353 000) in 1996–97. It is housed in the SADC Food Security Technical and Administrative Unit (FSTAU) in Harare.

Its objective is to develop a regional integrated database providing improved access to essential food security information by decision makers and analysts through efficient storage and retrieval of food security related data and information. The food security database is part of the SADC Regional Information System.

Major categories and types of data being collected and stored in the regional and national databases concern population, crops, livestock, trade, stocks, food prices, health/nutritional data, household characteristics, food aid distribution and income/expenditure data. Data are also being collected/stored regarding the environment (e.g. reservoir levels), meteorology (e.g. rainfall, temperatures, evaporation) and a variety of base maps (e.g. hydrology, land use, crop zones, soils, market locations).

3.9.5 United Nations Development Programme

The following points are of interest concerning ALCOM:

• an agreement for technical collaboration was signed with SADC in April 1996;
• UNDP Harare houses the Water Resources Coordinating Office for SADC Region;
• the Zimbabwe “Give a Dam” project funded by various NGOs and supported by UNDP, is coordinated by the latter. The purpose is to build 55 small reservoirs in Matabeleland (Bulawayo Municipality), of which nine are under construction. Food security is the immediate objective but, already now, new issues are becoming apparent such as health aspects (malaria, bilharzia ......) and community issues. The possibilities of using these dams for fish production has been totally ignored by the developers until now even though this project is sited in Zimbabwe, not far from the ALCOM SWB pilot project in the Southern Province.

3.9.6 Hydrological Cycle Observation System

The HYCOS Programme aims at monitoring large dams hydrological conditions for flood and drought warnings. Its focal point is in the Department of Water Affairs, South Africa. It was suggested that it would be interesting to bring the small dams into this network, which point out to the future importance of the ALCOM SWB database, being actually developed.

3.9.7 European Commission - SADC/Zimbabwe

The programme for the Eighth European Development Fund (EDF for 1997–2002) is now under preparation for Zimbabwe and the various SADC sectors. The draft regional part of this programme should be proposed by the SADC Secretariat to the SADC Council of Ministers in August 1997 for approval. The Zimbabwe national programme should be submitted this year by Government. Identified priorities include food security and irrigation. Close ties exist with SADC/FANR (Harare) on these subjects.

It was noted that the regional EC-financed “Microproject Programme” (24 million ECU for 5 years), coordinated from Harare, may wish to coordinate its dam construction programme (ab. 3 000 dams) with the ALCOM/SWB database in the future.

3.9.8 ALCOM Programme

The “Aquaculture for Local Community Development” (ALCOM) Programme was originally designed as an inter-regional programme aimed at testing and developing methods and techniques appropriate for rural small-scale fish farming and community-based fisheries management, to be applied on a wider scale by member governments.

The programme began in Zambia in October 1986 (Table 5). It gradually expanded to cover the entire SADC Region and in August 1989, was endorsed as part of the SADC Action Programme by the Council of Ministers. In September 1992, ALCOM activities were further enlarged to apply established development and testing methods to the utilisation of the numerous small water bodies found throughout the SADC Region for fish production. The programme is now reaching the end of its implementation Phase III in December 1996, with a possible extension to June 1997¹².

¹² Ref: ALCOM, 1996b.

Table 5. Phasing of ALCOM's implementation

ALCOM Programme is guided by a Steering Committee which meets once a year. It is composed of all member countries (each of which has appointed a Liaison Officer for ALCOM), the donors and FAO. This Committee provided guidance to ALCOM on the member countries priorities and requirements, and reviews the Programme progress and work plans (Figure 9). The Steering Committee has met nine times since 1987 (Table 6).

Table 6. ALCOM's Steering Committee Meetings

Rem. * Advisory Committee Meeting

ALCOM's work is spread among four groups of activities:

• aquaculture for small-scale farmers: four pilot projects are now underway in Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique;
• utilisation of small water bodies for aquaculture and fisheries: four pilot projects are now underway in Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe; a database on SWB in the SADC Region is being established.
• information Service: generates, collects, processes and disseminates information in appropriate package (see below);
• administration and Management: ensures increased awareness about aquaculture issues in the SADC member countries and region.

Training activities are an important part of ALCOM's work to ensure future sustainability. Apart from every-day on-the-job training, they take place within the first three action programmes mentioned above, in all of the countries directly involved with ALCOM pilot projects as well as in the SADC Region as a whole (Annex 13).

Staffing. In 1995–96, ALCOM staff consisted of the following (Annex 14):

• professional staff:
  • FAO international: 5, - in Zimbabwe (4) and Malawi (1)
  • FAO national:5, - in Zimbabwe (3), Mozambique and Tanzania
  • FAO/APO:2, - in Tanzania and Zambia;
• general staff: 6 in Harare HQ, Zimbabwe;
• consultants: 4 (1995) and 3 (1996 evaluation);
• national associated staff: in Malawi (5), Mozambique (8), Tanzania (2), Zambia (3) and Zimbabwe (3).

ALCOM Information Service

The output of the Information Service includes:

• a quarterly newsletter ALCOM News aimed at planners, official scientists and other development agencies; new design and production costs cut down by 66 percent since October 1995; readership survey helped streamline mailing list; major problem is obtaining contributions from aquaculturists from the region; seven issues published in 1995 – June 1996 (Annex 15); from October 1995, all issues are also published electronically on the Internet.
• technical reports and field documents on ALCOM Activities: during the period 1995 – June 1996, seven reports and 10 field documents were published (Annex 15): it is planned to publish all research documents electronically.
• national aquaculture newsletters published locally in Mozambique (Portuguese) and Tanzania (Kiswahili) for use by extensionists and fish farmers;
• staff publications outside ALCOM: a series of publication have been produced by ALCOM professional staff and consultants (Annex 15);
• home page established on Internet's World Wide Web on 1 October 1995: provides information about ALCOM objectives, pilot projects, publications; this has resulted in increased number of requests for information, reaching now 30 per week on average.
• mailing of ALCOM documents throughout the world (Annex 16).

ALCOM Library

The ALCOM library efficiently provides the following services:

• research and reference services to fisheries and aquaculture officials in the SADC Region;
• a computerised database on regional and international fisheries/aquaculture related issues;
• training in library science and practical application to national libraries (attachments for librarian students and in-house training of librarian assistants in their institutions), see Annex 13.

The library contains about 6 000 documents catalogued on a computerised database including abstracts. It has also a phototheque which is gradually made accessible electronically.

The ALCOM library database have been made available to the Bunda College of Agriculture and to ICLARM in Malawi, to the Farming Systems Programme in Botswana, to the Rhodes University in South Africa as well as to ALCOM field offices in Mozambique, Tanzania and Zambia. The databases are periodically updated by exchange of diskettes. Networking has been initiated.

The library has also several aquatic resources and agriculture databases running on CD-ROM, such as AGRIS Fisheries 1975–93, AGRIS 1991—92, and FISHBASE (ICLARM/FAO). Additional databases are now accessible to ALCOM through Internet.

ALCOM library is part of the Zimbabwe National Agricultural Information Network Center (ZIMAGRINET), which collects, processes and disseminates scientific information on agriculture and related subjects.

Since the installation of additional telephone lines, the library is now able to respond quickly and cheaply by E-mail to all library users. Searches on the Internet are also possible, increasing the networking capacity.

From June 1995 to June 1996, requests for information have been numerous originating not only from the SADC Region (321 requests - Table 7) but also from many other countries (Annex 17).

Table 7 ALCOM library requests from SADC countries, June 1995 – June 1996

Since its creation in the late 1980s, the ALCOM library has been strongly supported by the library of the FAO Department of Fisheries, Rome.