The mission attempted to collect the most precise available data concerning factors which influence the selection of candidate species for culture, the configuration of appropriate culture facilities, the design of facilities, and the assessment of investment and operating costs.
The Syrian coast is characterized by a narrow continental shelf which projects from 1 to 10 km from the shore, reaching depths of 400–600 m before falling steeply into the north Levantine Basin. The Levantine Basin is considered poor in terms of oceanic productivity. It lacks significant upwellings, circulation of water masses, and inflows from major rivers, particularly since the damming of the Nile.
Marine environmental data were generally the most difficult to obtain, due to scarcity of institutional work concerning the sea. The National Oceanographic Institute in Latakia could provide no information concerning sea water temperatures, hydrographical maps, nor current or wave conditions of the Syrian coastal waters.
The Syrian coastline is about 183 km in length, and is devoid of estuaries, lagoons or sheltered bays. Most coastal rivers are short (less than SO km) and seasonal.
A general map of the Syrian coast is shown in Annex 4a. A more detailed nautical map is available for the section of the coast ranging from the Turkish border in the north down to 18 mi south of Baniyas in the south. This is provided in Annexes 4b-l to 4b-5 (north to south).
The coast is rocky in the north of Latakia, intermingled with sandy areas. In the majority of rocky regions the seabed changes to sand a few metres from the waterline. Although there are no deep areas immediately adjacent to the coast, the slope of the seabed is around 5% in the stretch between Ras ibn Hani and Ras el Fasuri. This is also the only region of deep water offering shelter from the predominant SW winds. Larger sandy bays are present in the northern areas of Ras el Khinzir and Ras el Basit (adjacent to the border with Turkey).
South of Latakia is a long stretch of sandy beach, with dunes, extending almost up to Jeble. The sea floor in this area is very shallow and flat, with a slope of 0.5%. Around Jeble the coast is mixed gravel-coarse sand, changing to sand immediately below the waterline. The seabed is relatively flat, with a slope of about 1%. This type of coastline continues up to Baniyas, where there is a short stretch of rocky coast. There is here also a sharp transition from rock to sand a few metres below the sea surface, resulting in a flat seabed (slope 1–2 %) up to a distance of about 1 km from the coast. Further seawards the sea-floor descends sharply at a slope of 10%.
Further south, past the rocky outcrops of Baniyas, the coast is again mainly sand to fine gravel, and the sea-floor is sandy and flat (slope 0.5–1%). Approaching Tartous, the Island of Arowat and the border with Lebanon the seabed near the coast becomes progressively more flat.
Annex 5a gives average monthly values for air temperatures, humidity, precipitation and winds prevailing in Latakia, from data collected over a 7-year period.
The relative frequencies of winds from different directions over an average yearly period are presented in the form of a windrose in Annex 5b.
No comprehensive frequency-speed windrose was available, but experience information collected from a number of sources ranging from local fishermen, port authorities to military personnel and university professors all agree in the following:
The year can be divided in two characteristic periods with respect to prevailing winds. A “calm” period from April to September/October, during which the weather is stable, with low intensity winds from the W and SW sectors. A “rough” period from October/November to March, during which weather conditions are unstable: winds from the NE and N sectors are frequent, and storms arrive from the SW and W sectors. The storms are typically of short duration, but sometimes last up to 3–4 days, and exceptionally up to one week.
The MFB of GEF provided a table indicating the expected occurrence of storms on a yearly basis, including data on wind velocity. This is presented in Annex 5c.
There are no permanent records of physico-chemical characteristics of coastal waters.
2.1.3.1 Open-sea temperature
A few scattered data on sea water temperatures were found. These are from the following sources:
- Baniyas Petroleum Terminal (1982)
- FAO Exploratory Trawl Operations (1956)
- Tishreen University, for 1994 and 1995 (Saad, 1996)
- Baniyas Power Station (1996)
- Arowat Island Port Authority (1996).
Most of the information was collected for short periods, and some relates to temperature measured at the surface at arm's distance from the coast. Since sea water temperature directly affects fish growth, it is of fundamental importance in determining the feasibility of culture of selected species.
In a tentative effort to determine mean monthly sea water temperatures, the mission also utilized temperature data from the SE coast of Cyprus collected on a continuous basis (Stephanou et al.. 1995).
Pooling together the various inputs, a long-term prediction of mean monthly sea water temperatures along the Syrian coast can be tentatively assessed to be:
| Month: | Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sep. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |
| Temp. °C: | 16 | 16 | 17 | 19 | 21 | 23 | 36 | 28 | 26 | 25 | 22 | 18 |
2.1.3.2 Salinity
Salinity is gradually increasing off the Syrian coast, due to an universal reduction of freshwater river inflow in all the east Mediterranean Basin, and particularly following the damming of the Nile. A new balance still remains to be reached between evaporation and freshwater influx. Presently sea water salinity is reported as ranging between 38 and 41.5 parts per thousand (Saad, 1994).
2.1.3.3 Marine currents
Sea currents in the Levantine Basin are generally of low intensity (less than 0.2 m/sec). The predominant direction is anticlockwise from south to north, but in some months of the year gyres can form with a resultant northwards current adjacent to the coast (Saad, personal communication).
Strong intensity surface currents are thus present only when induced by wind forces, and can reach peaks of over 1 m/sec on such occasions. Such currents are however confined to the upper surface layers.
2.1.3.4 Waves
No direct measurements exist. An effort was made to obtain information from small-scale and trawl fishermen, from harbour authorities, divers and from military personnel on the wave heights during extreme storms and on the frequency of their occurrence.
The maximum wave heights were variously reported as being between 5 and 8 m, the majority of interviewers stating 6 m as maximum wave height. Frequency of storms with waves above 4–5 m is reported as 1–4 times per year.
Storms from the SW (Libech) are considered the most annoying to fishermen because of their high frequency and duration of several days. However, storms from the W (Garben) are considered to cause the highest waves, although they do not persist a long time (1–2 days).
Although winds from the NE and N can be very strong, they do not cause high waves in proximity to the coast.
Applying the nomogram for deep water significant wave predictions as functions of wind speed, fetch length and wind duration (US Army, 1984) to the available data it appears that from a theoretical point of view maximum significant wave heights along the Syrian coast can reach values of 7 m (SW), 6 m (W) and 4.5 m (NW) respectively.
Underwater inspections were carried out at two sites to obtain a better insight into the prevailing physical and biological conditions of selected areas.
One dive was effected in front of the National Oceanographic Institute, along a transect perpendicular to the coast. Observation was made beginning from a depth of 30 m (approximately 500 m from the coast), up to the coast. The sea-floor is sandy and very uniform from 30 to 18 m depth, characterized by very few forms of marine life. At 18 m a benthic alga appears, and some more forms of life are present (molluscs, small fish). On the whole the density of both plant and animal populations is very low, and there is practically no organic matter in the sediment. Adjacent to the coast the sea-floor changes from sand to rock (at a depth of 6 m), and there are more algae and fish present along this very narrow strip.
Another dive was effected in front of the Sinn Farm (between Jeble and Baniyas). This area is a petroleum terminal. Crude oil coagulations are found on the coarse sand/fine gravel beach, and a patch of oil covering an area of approximately 10 m2 was floating on the surface. Underwater the seafloor immediately changes to sand, without any benthic algae. A rocky barrier is found near the coast. This is teeming with algae, molluscs and fish. Several species of sparids were present, although Diplodus sargus was most numerous. This area is very shallow. On the sand layer there is a significantly greater amount of organic material than north of Latakia. It does not appear that the presence of the oil terminal has a pronounced negative effect on underwater life at this location.
These are concentrated around the three major ports of Latakia, Baniyas and Tartous. Latakia is the largest port in Syria for both fishing vessels and commercial sea freight. The harbour is an excellent facility (well-sheltered and equipped for freight handling and storage), but lacks services for fishermen. It is also used by military vessels. Baniyas is principally used as an oil terminal, and has a smaller port for fishing vessels and Tartous has both a commercial freight port and a small fishing port.
In addition to the above, Jeble and Arowat Island are equipped with ports for fishing vessels.
A number of smaller creeks and coves serve as minor landing places, in particular the beach at Ras el Basit near the border with Turkey and Minat el Kaban north of Latakia.
A major road runs along the coast from Tartous in the south up to Latakia in the north, and continues inland towards Horns-Damascus and Aleppo respectively.
A secondary paved road follows the coast north of Latakia for about 20 km. Thereafter it turns inland, leading to Turkey, with branches extending seawards towards the bays of Ras el Khinzir and Ras el Basit.
Access to the sea is easy by road along most of the coast. Exceptions are the bay of Ras el Khinzir (winding road), and the sand-dune areas just south of Latakia which are accessible only by heavy trucks.
Electricity is readily available at all the areas which can be reached by normal roads.
There are harbourmasters in the principal ports, of which three are equipped with patrol boats.
In Latakia there are three ports institutions: the Commercial Port Company; the Directorate of the Port; and the Marine Transport Directorate of the Ministry of Transport.
The National Oceanographic Institute is an impressive 5-storey building located near Ras ibn Hani, north of Latakia, equipped with numerous laboratories and facilities. However, it did not appear there was much activity in marine research at the Institute, and even fundamental information concerning the Syrian coastal waters were not available.
Tishreen 16 University of Latakia carries out some marine investigations, mainly as subject of graduate theses.
The coastal zone comprises two administrative governates of the MAAR DOF Headquartered in Latakia and Tartous. Three officers with qualifications in agricultural engineering staff each of the DOFs' offices in Latakia and Tartous. The offices are located in ministry buildings at a considerable distance from both the fishing ports, or fish market.
The GEF operates three trawlers, and freshwater aquaculture operations including cage culture of carps and tilapia. Some GEF and MAAR staff have participated in training courses abroad which included aspects of marine aquaculture, but lack practical experience in the design, operation and management of marine aquaculture facilities.
There are no other institutions or companies with specific capabilities to provide services or know-how to assist the development and running of marine aquaculture projects.
Detailed reviews of the markets and the supply-demand situation for fishery products in Syria are provided in the reports of Medina-Pizzali (1996) and Kelleher (1996).
Fish are marketed through buyers in Latakia, Baniyas and Tartous. Most fish is wholesaled within the same day, being retailed in the coastal zone, or moved to the main urban markets in Aleppo, Horns and Damascus. Latakia is the ‘clearing house’ for marine fish with an estimated 65–70% of all marketed landings.
Annex 6a provides a list of the principal demersal commercial marine fish species found in Syrian waters, including their scientific, English and Syrian names, and season of reproduction.
The prices of fish species most commonly encountered on market stalls are given in Annex 6b, for various size classes.
Indicated wholesale prices in Latakia cover the price range encountered in both the low season (Summer) and the high season (Autumn to Spring). These values are based on data provided by GEF MFB in Latakia, combined with prices recorded in Latakia, Ras el Basit and Tartous.
Retail prices represent average values registered in three different fish shops in Damascus during April 1996. These prices are high even by European standards.
The main features of the marine fish market are the consequence of the limited fisheries resources and of the ban on fish imports. This results in high market prices for marine fish, particularly demersal species.
The major factors that act as constraints on the demand for marine fish are price and lack of regular supplies (Medina-Pizzali, 1996). A seasonal reduction in prices occurs in the summer months, due to some cultural predisposition against fish consumption in the hot season and to glut landings of pelagic fish species.
Apparently, prices of demersal fish are subject to depression also as a consequence of short-term increases in supply. This is exemplified by a reduction of red mullet prices for short periods in Autumn when landings increase to 3–5 fold at the re-opening of the trawling season.
The high prices commanded by selected demersal species appear to arise from demand fuelled primarily by luxury hotels and high-class segment of the population. While this represents a steady demand, it is questionable what additional quantities may be offered to the market without leading to an over-supply situation and subsequent decline in prices. The present supply of high-value species is officially around 900 t (possibly 2 500 t in practice-see Section 1.2.1).
The mission has examined the availability and costs of the principal inputs required for the construction and operation of marine aquaculture facilities in Syria.
General building materials are readily available locally at favourable prices. The same applies to construction works. Both electricity and fuel are available at low cost compared to other Mediterranean countries. Cost data for specific items are provided in Annex 7.
Specific equipment, machinery and materials required for marine fish farming are not available and must be imported. This applies to items such as cages, nets, water filtration equipment, feeders, monitoring and laboratory equipment, and pumps (although some models of the major European brands can be found in Damascus). A limited selection and quantity of items such as netting and rope can be found locally at high price, from fishing gear suppliers who have to buy foreign currency at an elevated cost on the open market.
Feed for marine fish also has to be imported, either as a finished product or as main raw material components such as quality fish meal have to be imported for the local production of dry pelletized feed.
Unskilled and skilled labour is readily available.
Wages in Syria are rather low, as can be seen from Annex 7. These wages refer to average values in government-related posts. The Syrian people are generally hard-working, with good professional ability. The low wages provided by the government sector often reflect themselves in below-average performance.
Private employers generally offer equal or just slightly higher basic salaries, but often provide fringe benefits (free meals and transport) and/or productivity-related incentive payments.
Personnel with agricultural, biological and engineering university degrees are available, although without specific aquaculture knowledge.
There is a lack of expertise and competent institutional support for the development of marine aquaculture projects (see also Section 2.2.3).
This is a field where significant external inputs are required.
