It is the policy of FAO to review here selected publications which appear to have a direct bearing on the current work of the Forestry and Forest Products Division.
Waldbau auf Pflanzengeographisch-Okologischer Grundlage. (Silviculture Based on Plant Geography and Ecology.) Leo Tschermak. Pp. xiv + 722 with 153 drawings and tables. Springer-Verlag, Vienna Austria. 1950. $14.50.
This is a comprehensive study of the relation between forests and their environment as a basis for silvicultural practices. It is only through understanding of this relationship that a lasting and effective forest management is possible. It means working with nature and not against nature. It means a thorough knowledge of the natural geographic range of the species, their rainfall heat and light requirements, their suitability to the soils and all other environment factors which in their totality create the biological conditions for the existence, growth and development of forests. Since these conditions vary from country to country, the silvicultural practices must also vary. Professor Tschermak does not claim to be the innovator of the biological approach to silviculture
For the last few decades there have appeared many textbooks in different countries expressing the same point of view. In 1937, Professor Toumey, in the United States, stressed the ecological basis as the foundation of silviculture in 1928, Professor G. F. Murozov, in Russia, analyzed the forest as a geographic phenomenon. In 1938, Professor A. Pavari, in Italy, advanced the same views In Germany two classical works on the subject have been published: one by K. Rubner, in 1934, and another by A. Dengler in 1944. What distinguishes Tschermak's work from those of his predecessors is that his study is confined to the mountainous forests of Central and Southern Europe, with special reference to the forests of Austria and its neighboring countries, the Balkan Peninsula and Turkey.
The book is divided into two parts. Part I deals with the basic plant geographic facts such as the influence of heat, water, light, content of carbon dioxide in the air, wind, soil, and all other environmental conditions upon the occurrence and growth of certain forests and tree species. It contains a description of the forest regions of Austria Germany, the Balkan Peninsula, and Turkey. A chapter is devoted to the effect of the animal world upon forest vegetation, which is far from insignificant and: seldom receives the attention it deserves. Part II - The Techniques of silviculture - is devoted to the application of the biological principles to the silvicultural treatment of definite stands and species. There is a wealth of detailed information about forest types and species of which little was known before. Thus Professor Tschermak's work is a significant contribution to both forest ecology as a scientific discipline and practical silviculture especially in some still little known regions.
Harvesting Timber Crops. A. E. Wackerman. Pp. 437, illus. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York. 1949. $5.00.
The principles and methods developed to harvest timber in the United States of America are of interest to other countries which are changing over to mechanized power, or which face decisions on the most efficient methods to use in forests which are to be exploited for the first time. The forests in the United States vary from small scattered patches to enormous solid stands, from light to very heavy stands per unit of area, from small to giant trees; they are found on level ground and on steep hills, and they grow on soil ranging from sandy to very rocky. Thus the variety of problems is very great.
Methods of meeting these problems are still under experiment, and a vast amount of technical literature describes this or that device, machine, operation, or layout; but the very wealth of published material makes it difficult to select those methods best suited to particular sets of conditions.
The author of this latest addition to the American Forestry Series of textbooks has brought together a summary of the information available. In Part I, "Considerations Preliminary to Actual Harvesting," he treats in separate chapters of timber crops - the goal of foresters, the development of forest industries in America, the origins of modern timber-harvesting methods, planning the timber harvest, and forest labor. The necessity for intelligent planning to adapt methods for each step to the problems set by the forest and ground and to combine the separate steps into an efficient and balanced operation is well explained. Erroneous selections and combinations may lead to inefficient and wasteful harvesting from the standpoint of costs and returns and to needless damage or destruction of the forests. Operations succeed or fail as the available labor is efficiently organized and trained for the methods which are to be used. Labor efficiency will be greatly affected by the ways in which men are housed and fed, and by the correct relationship of camps to the forest operations.
In Part II, "Preparation of Trees for Removal from the Forest," chapters cover selection of trees to cut, the felling operation, bucking felled trees, hewing, riving, and peeling, and tools used in felling, bucking, and processing trees. Here the relationship of utilization to forestry is treated in some detail. The most modern power saws of various types which have proven effective are sufficiently described, and the best patterns of a large number of hand tools such as axes, saws, etc., are also dealt with.
Part III, "Movement of Products from the Forest," separately considers bunching products in the forest, skidding loading, and transportation from the forest. Here a very large number of mechanical devices have been developed to meet the problems encountered in forests of different kinds.
Part IV, "Organization and Control of Harvesting Operations," deals with the measurement of forest products, organization of harvesting operations, costs and records, and regional harvesting practices. The methods of measurement represent United States practice and cover logs, pulpwood bolts, stacked or ricked products, piece products such as poles, piles, and ties, and the converting factors commonly in practice. The major factors to be considered in operations include the types of ground and weather conditions to be expected whether the operation will be seasonal or year-round the average daily or seasonal output sought, and the general type of operation decided upon to meet conditions. Thus small-scale operations differ greatly from large-scale operations, and the latter vary depending upon whether they are concentrated or scattered. The forest owner who does his own utilization may organize differently than other types. Proper records of costs are a necessary step in controlling harvesting costs and returns, and methods for proper cost keeping are described.
Finally, in a series of papers by qualified experts, the harvesting practices in the principal forest regions of the United States are described and related to the local forestry problems. In emphasizing principles, and in relating harvesting methods to forestry, the author has performed a useful service not only to United States foresters but also to foresters in many other countries.
Out of the Earth. Louis Bromfield, Pp. 305, illus. Harper and Bros., New York. 1950. $4.00.
Some years ago the author acquired an area of badly run-down farm land in Ohio - eroded, poorly drained, lacking organic material in the soil, and producing low and uncertain yields. The original forests were long since gone and repeated cropping to maize had apparently "worn out" the soil. He started to build up the soil and the yields, making each step pay its own way, and using a system based on the vast array of technical studies available. Finally he succeeded in demonstrating that intelligent farming - the new agriculture - could stand on its own feet without aids, subsidies, and subventions.
The author kept detailed records of operations and their results, costs, and incomes. An articulate man, he has set forth the results in three books, together with his personal philosophy. Fascinated with the experience, he has encouraged visitors to come, to see, and to learn thousands from the U.S.A. and many other lands have come. In this, the third volume, he has set down what has happened, why and how it happened, and how similar results can be obtained on other farms.
Essentially, and in oversimplified form what has been done is to restore forest or permanent grass to rough or steep land unsuited for plowing, to restore organic material to the soil by growing and turning under cover crops, to restore needed chemicals in the topsoil by using deep-rooted alfalfa to tap the reserves in deep soil layers, and to rotate crops. This involved a shift from maize and other grains to grasses, legumes, and livestock. But Mr. Bromfield has used chemical fertilizers and soil conditioners to supplement the organic farming. The full story, of course, involves much detail, but the way it is told, and the explanations of why and how, engross the reader throughout the whole narrative.
This is a story of how productive and profitable agriculture can be restored on sloping lands that were formerly in forest, a story of the resources of science intelligently and energetically applied. Foresters should find it interesting not alone for what it tells but as a challenge to the doctrine that restoration to forest is the prime remedy for rundown cropland. Much experience is needed in other areas and countries before the conflicting claims of foresters and farmers for use of land can be worked out on a rational basis, with each use in its proper place and both uses conserving the soil and the water. This book is a step toward that goal.
El Castano en Espana. J. Elorrieta y Artaza. Pp. 303, illus. Ministerio de Agricultura, Instituto Forestal de Investigaciones y Experiencias, Madrid, Spain. 1949.
The author discusses botanical aspects of Castanea sativa, including its most important varieties in Galicia and the Basque province Among the principal characteristics of this tree are its calciphobia and humidity requirements, both of soil and atmosphere, in the different localities, which are characterized by the most varied plant associations.
The second part of the book is devoted to silvicultural aspects describing in detail the forests exploited as high forest and coppice, the latter providing hoop and stave material for cooperage The most convenient rotation systems are discussed from silvicultural and economic points of view Special mention is made of the pollarded forests in Galicia and artificial regeneration, detailing the different methods of sowing and planting, nursery work, and seed selection.
A description is given of the castañarejos, forests exploited for their nuts, with full details as to culture, grafting, fruit production, and regeneration.
The most important uses of timber and fruit are given with special mention of stave fabrication and the different kinds of packing used in Andalusia and Catalonia.
The last part of the book deals with pathology with special reference to the two principal chestnut diseases - ink disease, caused by the fungus Phytophthora cambivora, and the blight caused by Endothia parasitica. Considering the great damage caused by these two pests, they are discussed in detail. A plan is presented for the control of these diseases and for Spanish reafforestation, taking into account the latest experience obtained by breeding and crossing the common chestnut with the Chinese chestnut (C. mollissima) and the Japanese chestnut (C. crenata), both of which are resistant to these diseases.
Direito Florestal Brasileiro. (Brazilian Forest Legislation.) Osny Duarte Pereira, Federal District Judge. Borsoi, Rio de Janeiro. 1950.
At the request of the National Pine Institute, and with its assistance, the author undertook this definitive study of forest legislation, which extends its scope beyond Brazilian law.
The introduction by the President of the Institute and the words of praise by the Federal Director of Forests and the Federal Forestry Council show that they consider this work one of great value and significance.
The first chapters are serious comparative studies of forest legislation: the origins of forest law and modern forest legislation in most countries of the world. There follows a study of the historical development of Brazilian forest legislation during the Colonial and Republican periods, with a summary of the legislation of the major states belonging to the Federation.
The author then discusses the economic foundations and purposes of forest legislation and follows with a series of studies of such legislation in relation to the climatic, ecological, economic, and political background of various countries including Brazil. Finally, he deals with special aspects of this legislation (infractions of forest laws, forest fires punishment of infractions, and forest police services), and the organization of forest services (the forestry fund, the Federal Forestry Council, the Forest Service of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Pine Institute) The book concludes with a complete bibliography.
This work, the first of its kind in Latin America, has a definite place in the library of foresters and jurists.
The Rural Economy of New England. John Donald Black. Pp. 796; 123 tables, 155 charts. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 1950. $7.50.
This study concerns the economy of the six New England states - Maine New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. This research on a regional economy is focused on the subject of soil use and is written from the rural viewpoint
The income from New England woodlands in their present condition and under the generally nonscientific management which they now receive, can be estimated to be only about $60 million annually, as compared with the $250 million obtained from farm crops. However, in contrast with too many rural economists, the author makes a detailed study of the forest resource, which covers 12.4 million hectares or three-quarters of the area, and plays a basic protective role in preventing soil erosion and regulating stream flow.
Although forestry is discussed incidentally throughout the book, foresters will read with particular interest the chapter on woodlands and their management. Stressing small forest holdings and farm forests particularly, which are generally badly managed, the author seeks to discover how this situation can be remedied. The economic importance of this question is indicated by a census of 1945, which disclosed that there are more than 4,300 "forest products farms" in New England - those which derive a higher income from the forest than from all other crops put together.
Particularly thought-provoking is the study of a Maine family farm in which forestry and dairy production are combined. The author concludes that a farm consisting of 120 hectares of woodland and 20 hectares of cultivated land, with sufficient pasture for the maintenance of 10 milk cows, could - if the forests were put under intensive management - readily yield a revenue comparable to that of the usual dairy farm in Maine.
No less significant is the study on forest cooperatives. These organizations were formed to encourage the scientific management of forests and to market the produce from small properties. Unfortunately, they were established in New England only a few years before World War II, then the rise in timber prices led their members to trade individually rather than collectively with buyers ready to offer high prices. However, the author considers co-operatives the most rational solution of the problem of small private forests in this region.
Fifty Years of Forestry in the U.S.A. Robert K. Winters, Editor. Pp. 385, illus. Society of American Washington 6, D. C., U.S.A. 1950. $4.00.
In 1898 there were only two native-born, professionally trained foresters in the United States of America, and two who were European born and trained. There were no professional schools, no textbooks, and practically no technical facts directly applicable to the varied and complex forests of the country. Fifty years later there were about 15,000 trained foresters, 22 accredited professional schools of forestry and a vast and growing body of technical knowledge dealing with the forests and forestry.
The Society of American Foresters was founded on 30 November 1900 by seven men. In 1945 it was decided to prepare a history of forestry in the United States for the half-century which had passed since the founding of the Society This volume is the result of the work of the Society's committee and of the 19 authors selected to prepare chapters on important phases of forestry and on organizations and activities that have contributed to the advancement of professional forestry. Robert K. Winters served as chairman of the committee editor of the history, and author of the initial chapter summarizing professional growth and achievement during the first half-century. He has thus contributed greatly to a notable volume, a worthy memorial to the 50th anniversary of the Society It is fitting that the work should be done by the Society which brings together generalists and specialists; administrators and researchers, employees of federal, state, and local governments and of international and private organizations, foresters who deal with timber-growing and timber utilization, with range, forest wild life and forest recreation, and with forest influences and farm forestry; as well as teachers in professional schools and workers in public education.
The impact of these varied interests one on the other, makes the Society today a true forum where many-sided forestry and forest problems may be debated both from technical and public policy viewpoints.
During the half-century, progress in technical foundation and in practice have not been equal in their several phases. The authors have added to the historical record a critique of present status and a forecast. For example, in protection against fire the losses have been reduced to about one-eighth of those of 40 years ago, and new methods are being developed rapidly; but local catastrophes still occur and there is no organized protection, for roughly 130 million acres of forest. There is, however, confidence in continuing progress Protection against diseases and insects has been less effective, but the development of new weapons and the gradual shift from direct control to silviculture improve the outlook for progress. Silviculture has changed from a theoretical to a more practical basis, adapted to the forests. Intensive and sustained-yield management are still far from general. Forest utilization has improved greatly in several ways, including an increase in integrated operations. Range management is growing into a science, but application of available management practices is still far from general.
This is a sober and thoughtful piece of work. It recognizes mistakes and deficiencies as well as successes and achievements. The job of the profession is far from complete. But the progress made and position attained form a solid basis for reasoned optimism that with continuing energy, daring, and imagination, forestry in the United States of America may accelerate its advance to a pace fully geared to the needs and necessities of the nation and the world. Since the book is far more than an historical reference text, it is to be hoped that many foresters in many lands will wish to read it in full.
Water, Land, and People. Bernard Frank and Anthony Netboy. Pp. 331 illus. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York 22, N. Y. 1950. $4.00.
That all is not well with the water and land resources of the United States of America is well known. Many surveys and studies have assembled facts about floods, droughts, near-failures of domestic water supplies, erosion, dust storms, silting of reservoirs and stream-channels, lasting damage to forest and range lands, and the other familiar consequences of land abuse. The proximate causes of troubles have been fully and eloquently described and denounced. Havoc and ruin have been predicted. Remedies have been tried on varying scales and new courses of organized public action are even now under study.
The experience of the United States, its present situation and its prospects, are important not only to itself, but to other nations as well where similar problems are foreseeable, for the variety and magnitude of problems and the number and complexity of attempted or proposed solutions in the United States are nearly encyclopedic in coverage.
The first thing to do - and that is the authors' approach - is to grasp the essential but often ignored feet that several manifestations of trouble are not separate but are interrelated aspects of a single problem. Next, in a book addressed to intelligent laymen, it is necessary to explain rationally how and why use or abuse of land of different sorts, under different combinations of soil topography and climate, results in changes of the biological community and of the soil itself and thus in the behavior of water. These causes and effects are comprehensible when soundly and simply explained.
But it is to the solutions that the authors address most of the book. Those tried to date are of three categories: engineering works, control of land use and river-basin development - TVA. Great dams alter the habit of the main stream and of tributaries as well, building up stream bed levels, and where the inevitable levees go in, the problem is still unsolved. As reservoir capacity is lost through situation, attention turns to an endless and enormously costly upstream reservoir system - still no permanent solution. And flooding river bottoms by reservoirs displaces people and communities that the engineering programs are designed to protect, and destroys notable and irreplaceable scenic and recreation areas. High dams will probably destroy the great runs of salmon on west coast streams. Of course dams are necessary and useful, but they emphatically are not a full answer to land and water problems.
Land use has developed by trial and error and with general freedom to exploit. A notable success in attaining sound use has been worked out on the national forests, but the public programs of co-operation are having a solid beneficial effect on many but not all private vest lands The soil conservation district program is good, but far from all the land needing conservation is organized, and local districts are extremely reluctant to adopt stringent measures of self-regulation, even when they are genuinely needed. Subsidy payments are made for conservation practices on farm lands, but supervision and inspection are incomplete and co-ordination of programs is far from perfect. The programs on the vast area of public range lands and Indian reservations move at a snail's pace compared to the needs.
The most comprehensive program is the U. S. Department of Agriculture upstream flood control program, begun in the middle 'thirties. Whole watersheds are surveyed, programs of remedial action are worked out with effective local participation, and then applied over a generally long period, and both land use and engineering practices are used. But the pace of action lags far behind surveys and plans.
Better private land use depends almost wholly on voluntary action by landowners, since to date it has proved politically impossible to obtain such real controls of use as regulation of timber cutting and plowing of hill lands or unstable soils. And federal and state appropriations for land use programs are pathetically small in relation to needs and in comparison with vast expenditures for engineering works.
Finally, the authors say "Now is the time." If effective remedial programs on a comprehensive scale are to come into being several things are necessary. Greater knowledge of conditions, problems, and remedial practices is needed. Public apathy and ignorance, now the main obstacles to greater progress, must be overcome. Land use must be publicly controlled to prevent abuses and to serve the general welfare. Private land of critical importance should go into public ownership. Some sort of over-all planning and review board is urgently needed to control the unco-ordinated programs of the many agencies concerned. The ultimate test is whether the country can alter established cultural patterns sufficiently and rapidly.
By using selected ease histories to illustrate their main points, the authors successfully focus attention on whole problems and emphasize the many aspects which need to be dealt with concurrently. The book is written with deep conviction as well as with great knowledge and understanding. Above all, it avoids the alluring pitfalls of overstatement, of single-track commitment to one course of action against all others, and of criticism without proper documentation.
