by RENÉ KARSCHON, Research Institute of the Forest Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Israel
Israel has a land area of 20,600 square kilometers of which 49,000 hectares or 2.4 percent are set aside as forest reserves under the supervision of the Forest Department of the Ministry of Agriculture.
About 16,000 hectares of reserved land have been planted in the last 50 years, and 760 kilometers of roadside avenues and windbreaks established since the independent State was founded. Most forest reserves actually consist of maquis in a more or less advanced state of degradation due to past misuse common to all Mediterranean countries, and to consequent soil erosion.
Forest geography
Three well-defined regions can be distinguished:
1. The Mediterranean region, north of the Gaza-Hebron line, has a rainfall of over 400 millimeters reaching 1,000 millimeters in the mountains of Galilee. Once largely covered with forest, today there is only scrub. The coastal plain of 20,000 hectares partly bordered by shore dunes consists of brown-red sandy soils; during the last century there were still large stands of Quercus ithaburensis, but only isolated trees now remain. The Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) is confined to rendzina soils developed from the Upper Cenomanian; it is found on the western slopes of Mount Carmel and on some relic sites of Galilee and in the vicinity of Jerusalem. Q. ithaburensis scrub, often attaining to the form of open forest, is limited to low elevations, and also grows on rendzina, while on terra rosa, the most common type of mountain soil, Quercus calliprinos scrub is found. Open carob forest (Ceratonia siliqua) occurs both on rendzinas and on mountain terra rosa, and even on the coastal plain were it grows on weathered calcareous sandstone or on fixed sands. The course of wadis and rivers is marked by hydrophytes such as Platanus orientalis, Fraxinus syriaca, Salix sp., and Nerium oleander. Among the other species of the Mediterranean maquis, mention may be made of Acer syriaca, Arbutus andrachne, Crataegus azarolus, Laurus nobilis, Pistacia sp., Quercus infectoria, Rhamnus sp., and Styrax officinalis.The Mediterranean region is densely populated and all land suited to farming is cultivated, partly with the aid of irrigation. The area of land suited primarily for forest is estimated at 150,000 hectares or 7.3 percent of the total area of Israel.
2. The steppe region (Irano-Turanian) around Beersheba, northern Negeb, is characterized by an annual rainfall of 150400 millimeters. Deposits of aeolian loess, partly covered with sand, form the typical soil of this vast rolling plain where the most important tree is Tamarix articulata, although only isolated specimens are still found. In this preeminently agricultural region, irrigated farming and complete mechanization have displaced primitive systems of cultivating winter grains (barley).
The middle Jordan valley, between Tiberias and Beisan, and the basaltic mountains to the west of the river, are also part of the Irano-Turanian region. Annual rainfall is 300-450 millimeters. Basaltic or marry soils cover most of the region. Only isolated specimens of Pistacia atlantica and Zisyphus spina-christi are to be found.
3. The desert area (Saharo-Sind), southern Negeb, covers the rest of the country, south of Beersheba. Annual rainfall is under 150 millimeters and shifting sands and hammadas (stony desert plateaux) are the commonest habitats. The arborescent vegetation consists of isolated trees or clumps restricted to the wadis of the mountains and plains. The principal species belong to the Acacia and Tamarix genera. Shifting cultivation is still practiced in places.
Aims of forest policy
The aim of silviculture is to establish and maintain healthy forest stands capable of fulfilling the many purposes for which they are designed. The forest must primarily perform protective functions and, in particular, protect the soil from erosion, fix shifting sands and regulate the water regime. It should also serve to produce various categories of wood for particular uses (saw timber, railway ties or sleepers, poles, etc.) and so lay the foundations for the creation of a veritable wood industry which could rapidly and profitably absorb considerable manpower. At present the existing forests cannot meet the enormous timber requirements and the country depends mostly on imports. The manufacture of "masonite" from native and imported wood waste has just been started in conjunction with a large plywood mill. A paper mill is being built which will rely initially on imported wood pulp.
Afforestation and reforestation are undertaken by the Forest Department on the land set aside as forest reserves, by national institutions such as the Jewish National Fund, by communities and by private individuals. The Forest Department's policy is to encourage every afforestation venture by the free and unlimited distribution of plants on request.
Afforestation techniques
The plants are raised in nurseries in cans, or in locally-made cement or terracotta pots. When 8-12 months old, they are transplanted with balls of earth. For the most important species only the seed of selected parent trees is used.
In the Mediterranean region afforestation is carried out on heavily eroded mountain soils that cannot grow any other crop. The species most widely employed are Pinus halepensis, P. brutia, P. pinea, Cupressus sempervirens and Ceratonia siliqua. Soil preparation consists of terracing or digging plant-holes; sometimes the two are combined. Tending after planting takes the form of several hoeings in the first two years and filling up blanks or failed areas. Good results have been obtained by direct seeding or by planting conifer seedlings. Fire lines have been established everywhere.
Subsequent operations are pruning and thinning. Eucalyptus camaldulensis (= E. rostrata) and Casuarina equisetifolia are utilized for roadside plantings which are given two or three waterings in the first two years. Cupressus sempervirens is usually adopted for windbreaks. The dunes are fixed by planting Acacia cyanophylla and Eucalyptus camaldulensis, combined with rows of Artemisia monosperma. Plants are dug in 40 centimeters deep so that only a few leaves show above ground; Tamarix sp. is propagated on dunes by cuttings and Ricinus communis is sown.
Eucalyptus plantations are managed in the same way as coppice with an average rotation of 7-8 years, producing different-sized poles. The thinnings of softwood stands are utilized both as poles and as sawn wood for boxmaking, etc.
Degraded natural forests are improved by prohibiting grazing by livestock, especially goats, and by under-planting with conifers where there are blanks so as to obtain a two-storeyed growing stock. Pruning, trimming and thinning are practiced when necessary.
In the Irano-Turanian region, extensive afforestation has been carried out on the basaltic soils round Tiberias. Terracing and the planting of Acacia cyanophylla and Eucalyptus camaldulensis have successfully checked soil erosion and now effectively protect the town and road communications against floods.
In the northern Negeb, considerable roadside and windbreak plantings have been undertaken since the founding of the State. Transplanting and subsequent maintenance are carried out with tractor-drawn implements. The species chiefly used are Tamarix articulata, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Acacia cyanophylla. They are also utilized for checking erosion along the wadis that cut deep into the loess, and for fixing inland dunes.
Legislation
Since the founding of the State, the Government has given recognition to the major importance of forests for the country, and the Prime Minister has announced a plan to plant 100 million trees in 10 years. The implementation of this plan, however, at present hangs in the balance because of budget difficulties. 1
1
An FAO adviser visited the country for 3 months in 1953 to review and give guidance on the general forestry program.
The forest law dating from the time of the British mandate is still valid, and a revised draft prepared by the Forest Department has not yet been officially approved. A law regulating uncontrolled goat grazing has, however, already been approved by Parliament and the Forest Department is making arrangements to bring it into force.
Forestry education and research
There is no opportunity for higher forestry studies in the country and a shortage of personnel with university training is a serious handicap. The Forest Department organizes theoretical and practical courses for the subordinate staff every year.
A Forest Research Institute was established in 1939, attached to the Forest Department, and is directed by the Conservator of Forests. It is located at Ilanoth and has three sections dealing with ecology and silviculture, forest protection, and wood technology. The Institute has well-equipped laboratories and looks after many experiment plots throughout the country. There is also an aboretum of 80 dönüms 2 at Ilanoth, attached to the Institute.
2
1 dönüm = 0.22 acre, 0.089 ha.
This institute cannot cover all aspects of forest management and wood economy in the country, and the problems studied during the three years of its existence are summarized below. There are obviously many other problems which deserve attention and it is hoped that the Institute's activities will continue to expand.
Forest Research Program: Considering the emphasis placed on afforestation in recent years, it is natural that special attention should have been given to the problems connected with the establishment of new forests. The exclusive use of seed from selected seed trees of the principal species was introduced to improve the quality of future stands. Much research has also been done on different aspects of nursery operations: methods of seed pre-treatment have been studied and research done on the periodicity of germination of different species. Different sowing methods have been tried and new procedures for protecting seed from fungi and rodents have been devised. Studies have also been made to ascertain the best season for sowing and for transplanting the seedlings and on the influence of the soil on plant growth.
Other work has concerned afforestation techniques, in particular, hole and terrace planting. Comparative experiments with direct seeding and planting of seedlings and transplants have been made.
The choice of species for afforesting or reforesting different sites is obviously of cardinal importance. To this end experimental plots have been established to test various newly-introduced species and to compare their growth with that of species previously utilized. In addition, research is being undertaken on the ecology of the principal species. Of the factors investigated, attention has been particularly given to the water requirements of plants (resistance to drought, transpiration), and their soil requirements.
Silvicultural questions are also being dealt with by the Institute. Studies on pruning are in progress and experimental plots for ascertaining the effects of selective thinning have been established.
The activities of the Institute also include research on the possibility of planting trees in Wadi el 'Araba. After a preliminary study of the ecology of the indigenous plants in collaboration with the Botany Department of the Hebrew University, the Institute has worked out methods for sowing and transplanting trees in the Wadi el 'Araba. An experimental nursery is maintained in Ein Hosub. A pedological and ecological study has just been made of the most common type of soil, the hammada. Experimental plots have been laid out to improve planting techniques and to determine species likely to prove adaptable to the environment. Resistance to salt and drought and the transpiration of the chief woody species are being investigated.
In regard to forest protection, the Research Institute is making an inventory of all forest insects and timber pests. Special studies have been made on the biology of Matsococcus, chief pest of the Aleppo pine, its parasites and biological control with Chrysopa spp. Studies on the biology of Phorocantha and Lyctus, pests of eucalyptus wood, are also in hand; poles have been impregnated with zinc chloride so as to protect the wood from insect and fungus attack. Chemical control of the pine processionary moth has also been worked out.
Forest Products Research Program: Preliminary studies have been made in the field of wood technology and utilization on the identification and anatomy of native woody plants. The use of indigenous and exotic woods like the pines and eucalyptus is being studied, and research bears on not only their various possible end-uses but also on their physical and mechanical properties and on proper seasoning. In addition, work is under way on pine resin tapping and charcoal manufacture. Since a rational utilization of wood demands adequate knowledge of what can be grown, a study of the productive capacity and the quantities of wood available in the forests is also being made.
Hope for the future
A flourishing Forestry Society of Israel comprises foresters and forest-lovers; it publishes a regular journal and organizes excursions and lectures. According to an old tradition, the people each year celebrate Arbor Day when it is the custom for everyone, young and old, to plant trees.
Altogether, despite the political, economic and social difficulties which confront the young State of Israel, the forest economy appears to be going ahead vigorously.
Some 150 delegates from 22 countries attended the 11th Congress of the Union, organized at Rome by the Government of Italy in co operation with FAO in September last.
The background papers and records of the scientific discussions on the topics selected for discussion by the Congress are being printed and made generally available. The volume of proceedings will contain a wealth of valuable information on the latest ideas and findings in forest research.
After the business meetings at Rome had concluded, a very interesting study tour to Sicily was arranged for the delegates.
The International Council of the Union, which is the supreme body on organizational matters, elected A. Pavari (Italy) as President of the Union on the retirement of H. Burger (Switzerland). H. Van Vloten (Netherlands) was elected Vice-President. Elections to the Permanent Committee which meets annually to direct the affairs of the Union were as follows: C. F. Korstian (U.S.A.), M. Kreutzinger (Poland), J. MacDonald (U. K.), A. Oudin (France). C. R. Ranganathan (India) and L. Tortorelli (Argentina). The following Section Leaders were re-elected or newly appointed for the period until the next Congress which will, on the invitation of the delegate of the United Kingdom, be organized in England probably in 1956; Bibliography, E. Saari (Finland); Forest Influences, H. G. Champion (U. K.), Site Factors, A. de Philippis (Italy); Forest Plants, C. Syrach Larsen (Denmark); Silviculture, H. Leibundgut (Switzerland); Protection, H. Van Vloten (Netherlands); Forest Management, Y. Ilvessalo (Finland); Forest Economics, J. Speer (Germany) Operational Efficiency, U. Sundberg (Sweden); Mechanical Conversion, J. Campredon (France); Chemical Conversion, H. Mark (U.S.A.).
Under a special agreement between FAO and the Union, the Union collaborates closely with FAO on matters of forest research. In return, FAO provides secretariat staff and certain services for the Union.
