N. P. TULSTRUP, Secretary, Danish Forestry Society, Copenhagen
International trade in forest tree seed is small in volume and value compared with trade in farm crop seeds but is nevertheless of importance. To those countries where the introduction of exotic species has meant a remarkable increase or improvement in national wood production, the existence and organization of such trade is essential. Potentially an expanded international trade in forest tree seed is a matter of real concern to those countries where tree planting programs are being initiated or enlarged.
Historical review
In the early 1600's, there was already international trade on a modest scale in forest tree seed in Europe. During the following century the trade developed remarkably, and considerable quantities of seed, mainly of Scots pine, Norwegian spruce and European larch of central European origin, were widely distributed. Darmstadt in southern Germany became, in the course of a few decades, the most famous center of forest seed trade, and remained so for more than a century. In the eighteenth century, the first extensive forests of coniferous species were planted outside their natural habitat. At the end of the last century and during the first decades of the present, seed trade in Europe - as far as quantity of seed in the trade is concerned - probably reached its climax.
Records of the total annual volume of the trade in that period are not available, but a few examples from private sources give an idea of its dimensions and character. During the winter 1901/02, a single seed firm at Darmstadt received from France and Belgium more than 200 railway truck-loads of Scots pine cones, the seed of which was widely distributed in Germany and neighboring countries from the Darmstadt-Kiln, simply as seed of "Darmstadt origin". Almost annually during this period several tons of larch seed of alpine origin were sent to various countries: in 1918-1920, more than 4,000 kilograms went from Switzerland to Britain. Tons of seed of spruce were exported, mainly from the Schwarzwald region in south Germany to Sweden. In 1920-1922, for example, this amounted to 6,000 kilograms. It is also claimed that, in certain years, much spruce seed of southern French origin was exported to Austria and south Germany and there sometimes mixed with seed of local origin for further sale. Increasing quantities of acorns of common and red oak were exported from the Netherlands: during the winter of 1913/14, no less than 120 tons were shipped to a single seed merchant in Copenhagen, Denmark. And many hundreds of kilograms of the fine-grained seed of birch and black alder, the latter now well known for its pronounced climatic races, were collected in Belgium and France and exported via a seed dealer in central Germany, among others, to the same seed firm in Copenhagen, and thence to many widely scattered customers.
Intercontinental trade in forest seed was established in the early days of the eighteenth century, when seed of several eastern American species were frequently shipped to Europe, mainly for use in ornamental plantations. Regular forest plantations of Picea glauca, Pinus strobus, and a few other American species were, however, also raised shortly after 1700 in Europe. The first seed samples of northwestern American species, including Douglas fir and Sitka spruce, were, as is well known, sent to Europe about 1825 by the famous botanical explorer, David Douglas. Trade on a substantial scale in these species, however, did not begin until after the opening of the Pacific railroad in 1869. The center of the trade in those days was San Francisco, where seed from the northwest was shipped by boat and thence east by train to dealers on the Atlantic coast, or direct to customers in Europe.
Western Canada did not act as an international supplier of forest tree seed until after the first world war. It will be remembered that the Canadian Government after the end of the war shipped, as a gift, seed of Sitka spruce (mainly of Queen Charlotte Islands origin) to war-devastated European countries. Canada, especially British Columbia, is now an important source for seed of various conifers.
The first commercial consignments of Japanese larch from Japan to Europe arrived in the second half of the last century.
The first introductions of eucalypts from Australia took place in the early 1800's, mainly along the Mediterranean coasts and in France. Commercial plantations were, however not raised until the second half of the century, and in some of the main eucalypt-planting countries, such as Brazil, not until 1910 or even later. Now some 600,000 hectares have been planted to eucalypts in Brazil.
Bearing in mind the fact that Picea glauca was introduced into Europe about 1,700 from America and mainly used in shelterbelt plantations, it may be mentioned, merely as a curious fact, that seed of this species has been exported in considerable quantities from Europe (Denmark) to Canada during the last decades. Even seed of such American species as Sitka spruce and Thuja plicata (both, however, of selected origin) have recently been exported from Denmark to American dealers. This is indeed an improved forest seed version of "carrying coals to Newcastle".
Volume of trade
In most countries there are no official statistical records as to the volume of the import and export of forest seed. Normally, tree seed will be found in the statistical publications under the heading: "Other seeds (mainly horticultural)". However, a few examples drawn from available official and private sources may be mentioned to illustrate the volume of the trade. During the past five years, the average annual import of forest tree seed (with the exception of beech and oak) into Western Germany has been about 27 tons, and is increasing. The average annual import value amounted to about 850,000 DM. The import value has, however, varied widely from one year to another, depending on the species of seed introduced. During the same period the average annual export from Germany amounted to about 13 tons, the export value being 160,000 DM.
From Great Britain, one of the main forest seed-importing countries, more specific records are available. The British Forestry Commission itself is importing seed, covering its own as well as the main part of private needs. Home collections in Britain usually meet most of the requirements of broadleaved species such as oak, ash, sycamore and beech; but from time to time it is necessary to seek supplies, especially of beech and oak, from continental Europe. Since 1950, the annual import of beech and oak, mainly of southern German and Austrian origin, has varied between zero and almost 30 tons. The annual import of red oak acorns from the Netherlands was, in the same period, between 10 and 20 tons. For supplies of Scots pine and some of the less widely used conifers, home collections are normally sufficient to provide all requirements. But Sitka and Norwegian spruce, Douglas fir, Japanese larch, and the other important conifers used in Britain's extensive reforestation and afforestation program must be obtained abroad. The total annual import of seed of conifers into Britain has varied since 1950 between 5 and 12 tons, the main items being Japanese larch (between 1 and 2 tons from Japan), Douglas fir (1 ton, mainly from the State of Washington in the United States), Sitka spruce (1 ton, mainly from British Columbia), grand fir (800 kilograms, Washington and British Columbia), Corsican pine (500 kilograms, Corsica), lodgepole pine and Norwegian spruce (various origins).
The Forestry Agency of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Japan has indicated that the average volume of forest seed exported per year from Japan has for the last three years amounted to almost 8 tons, the main species being Japanese larch (about 6,400 kilograms) and Cryptomeria japonica (about 1,200 kilograms).
The Netherlands are now the world's main exporter of common and red oak acorns. For centuries the Dutch people have raised extensive and very beautiful roadside plantations, especially of oak, always selecting in the nurseries for these plantations the plants with the best shape and straightest stems. In spite of the heavy road traffic, most of these often very dense plantations are well maintained, and over-mature trees are replaced with new ones. The trees seed rather abundantly and collection conditions are, as may easily be imagined, generally very good. In certain good seed years hundreds of tons of acorns and beech nuts are exported, mainly to neighboring countries.
However, the annual export of agricultural seed from Denmark alone exceeds 20,000 tons, to the value of U.S. $ 12 million, so that it will be realized from these few examples covering some of the main forest seed importing and exporting countries that the volume and monetary value of the international trade in forest seed is relatively quite small.
FIGURE 1. - Roadside plantation of oak, Arnhem, Holland - source of acorns for export.
Successful establishment of exotics
The importance of international trade in forest tree seed must not, however, be judged solely from statistics. In point of fact, the trade has been, and still is, of considerably greater importance than might be gleaned from the bare import and export figures. In Britain, for example, the Forestry Commission's planting program envisages domestic forests producing, before the end of this century, more than one third of all the timber needed in Britain, the leading European timber-importing country, as compared with only 4 percent in 1938. Such an enormous increase in the national timber production would certainly be impossible without the successful establishment of exotic conifers, originally from introduced seed.
Denmark presents another European example of the successful introduction of numerous exotics. In this country with no native coniferous species of commercial importance, and a forest area comprising only about 9 percent of the total land area, exotic conifers (mainly Norwegian spruce) were introduced on a large scale already in the eighteenth century, and are now planted on 75 percent of the forest area. These intensively-managed plantations (covering 211,000 hectares) are at present supplying more than 50 percent of the Danish softwood requirements, and even allowing an export of certain softwood products. Furthermore, the Danish beech and oak woods have to some extent been improved in quality through frequent introductions of seed of better races than the indigenous forests of these species.
However, the most striking example of successful establishment of an exotic is that of radiate or insignia pine (Pinus radiata) into Southern Hemisphere countries from its very limited area of natural occurrence on the Monterey peninsula of California.- It was introduced into New Zealand by the settlers about 1860 and planted mainly for shelter. But as its potentialities for growth became obvious, it was used extensively for planting, with the result that about 228,000 hectares of P. radiata plantations have been established, or over 60 percent of the area for all species planted in New Zealand, and in the near future it is likely to be the country's most important timber. In the Union of South Africa, in Australia and in the south-central part of Chile this species has also been successfully introduced. In Chile, it extends over well above 200,000 hectares, the annual increment is about 2.8 million cubic meters, and the tree constitutes one of the most important potential raw material resources for the production of pulp and paper in Latin America. Similarly, Pinus canariensis, one of the best pine timbers, has a limited natural occurrence in the Canary Islands, 750 to 2,400 meters above sea level, but has been successfully introduced under a wide range of conditions. Since 1898, it has been planted on a large scale in the Union of South Africa, as have Pinus patula and various other pines of Mexican origin.
Eucalyptus undoubtedly constitutes the best-known exotic in many countries. All the eucalypts important from the forestry standpoint occur naturally only in Australia, but eucalypt plantations covering more than 1 million hectares have been created in various countries lying in world climatic zones of subtropical or Mediterranean type. On rotations of frequently only 9 to 10 years, they form the basis of very considerable industrial concerns. Most eucalypt species seed early and frequently, and the minute seed is easy to store over longer periods. The Director General of the Forestry and Timber Bureau at Canberra, Australia, has kindly informed the author that, for the last six years, the average annual export of eucalypt seed from Australian Government Departments has been about 62 kilograms and from private suppliers, 15 kilograms, but it is thought that the available figures in the case of private suppliers fall far short of the actual totals. The Forestry and Timber Bureau at Canberra is now acting as a central clearing house for orders for Australian forest tree seed.
Although spectacular results have been obtained with the introduction of eucalypts and radiate pine in several countries, the various northwestern American, European and Japanese species still represent at present a much more important element in international trade in forest tree seed for a large number of countries.
FIGURE 2. - Douglas fir forest from northwestern United States seed, in Denmark.
Importance of provenance and seed certification
The above are a few examples of successful introductions. There are other examples of unsuccessful importations which emphasize the need for a well-organized forest tree seed trade and exchange.
FIGURE 3. - Japanese larch forest, 50 years old, in Denmark, from Japanese seed.
It was recognized already in the early 1800's that Scots pine, the leading European timber in those days, showed considerable variation according to the different seed origins from which the trees derived. Some yielded timber of good, and some of bad, quality for ship building and similar constructional purposes. Some grew vigorously or comparatively well where others failed at an early age. In 1821, the first provenance trials in Scots pine were hid out, and it soon became evident that there were important racial differences. But not until the early years of the present century, in certain cases not until the last few decades, has any noteworthy attention been paid to the important question of origin of the seed. It was considered foolish not to buy where seed was cheapest.
Accordingly, considerable quantities of Scots pine seed of southern origin were, as indicated earlier, widely distributed simply because such seed was cheaper and frequently of better germinative capacity than seed of local origin in the importing countries. In numerous cases, severe losses were suffered by the forest owners when seed of unsuitable origin had been used. Black alder, with its pronounced climatic races, Norwegian spruce as exported in certain years from Finland and northern Scandinavia to southern countries, European larch of alpine origin, Douglas fir of Shuswap strain as exported to Britain, Denmark and other European countries with similar climatic conditions, and beech nuts collected under badly-shaped but abundantly seeding trees in Holland and various other countries, constitute further examples of indiscriminate and unfortunate seed imports. Even after the second world war, commercial consignments of European larch of alpine origin have been introduced into countries where it had already long ago been demonstrated that the young larch trees of that origin would be violently attacked by canker (Dasyscypha willkommii).
Especially since the 1920's, a mass of evidence has accumulated showing the existence of climatic, form, and perhaps also soil, races within many forest tree species, and it is now generally recognized that seed source in forestry is second in importance only to choice of species for planting projects. In forestry, it is even more important than in agriculture to use seed of the most suitable origin because of the long rotation normally involved from planting to cutting of the mature trees, and the resultant long time it takes to recognize a possible failure in the choice of seed source.
Despite this realization, international trade in forest tree seed still lacks a foundation of certainty as regards origin of seed, although the trade is improving as buyers are becoming more discriminating. Several countries, including the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Switzerland and Western Germany, have passed laws providing restrictions to stop the import of seed of unsuitable origin. The effectiveness of such laws depends not only on the co-operation of suppliers and users, but also on the supervision and inspection of imports. This latter point is rather difficult in many instances because labeling is often inadequate, due to lack of detailed knowledge on the part of the shipper or supplier, as to origin of the seed. Furthermore, in quite a number of commercially important species, our knowledge as to the development of races is still very incomplete.
Merely as a curious example, it may be mentioned that a few years ago several consignments of Douglas fir seed were imported freely simply as "conifer seed" into a country where Douglas fir seed must not be imported without passing a plant disease control. Under the heading © in the local import rules, the frontier control officer could not find any "black list" species (whereas under the heading (d) Douglas fir was, of course, recorded as "import forbidden"). Consequently, he had allowed the seed to pass without any disease control.
From the above, it should be clear that the widespread use of the forest seed certificate form adopted by the 1951 FAO Conference offers obvious advantages to both suppliers and purchasers of forest tree seed. These certificate forms were the subject of discussion at the 1959 session of the European Forestry Commission, and the Commission felt that now, after 8 years of use, the revision of these forms, which are reproduced here, should be considered. Readers are invited to offer suggestions for such revision.
As a help to seed users and tree planters, FAO has attempted to supply practical information on growth and seeding habits of principal species useful for planting programs through a series of Development Papers published in the World Planting Manual series. These now include: Forest Plantation Protection against Diseases and Insect Pests (No. 3); Handling Forest Tree Seed (No. 4); Tree Seed Notes (No. 6); Tree Planting Practices for Arid Areas (No. 8); Tropical Africa (No. 8); Temperate Asia (Nos. 10 and 14); Tropical Asia (No. 11); Choice of Species (No. 13); and, soon to be published, Tree Planting Practices for Latin America. In addition, Forestry Studies Eucalypts for Planting (No. 11) and Poplars in Forestry and Land Use (No. 12) provide useful information on these two important genera, and a monograph on radiate pine is in preparation. Many individual countries have prepared valuable publications along similar lines for their own national conditions. More of these are needed, and this would be a desirable activity of various national "World Seed Year" campaigns.
FAO also issued in 1958 a Forest Tree Seed Directory, listing reliable suppliers of over 1,000 species and reproducing the FAO certificates of seed quality and origin, and consignment form. A special World Seed Year edition of the Forest Tree Seed Directory will be available for 1981. The private seed dealers listed in the 1958 edition of the Directory comprise those submitted by Member Governments as being of sufficient size to warrant inclusion. The number is comparatively small, and for the most part these dealers are concentrated in the United States, central and northern Europe.
In most countries the forest seed trade is frequently a state-forest enterprise. However, there are the same advantages in a greater development of private forest tree seed trade as there are in private trade in agricultural seed or in other business enterprises. There are, in fact, some outstanding examples, as in the northwestern region of the United States, of progressive private dealers who have gone a long way toward delimiting specific geographic zones for collection and certification of origin of such important species as Douglas fir, and have succeeded in building a thriving business based on reliable, authenticated, well-tested seed. There would seem to be little doubt that the healthy and successful competition between private and state-enterprise organizations, in countries where these exist, in forest tree seed, must depend on the adoption and careful adherence to a universally acceptable seed certification system.
Future trend in international trade
What is the future outlook for international trade in forest tree seed? The lack of statistical records of past trade makes it difficult to answer this question specifically.
The increasing use of artificial regeneration of forests as compared with natural regeneration, and the extensive afforestation projects planned or under development in various parts of the world should involve an increasing demand for forest seed. In a few countries, extensive stands of the more important exotics already have attained seeding age; improved storing methods for the seed of many species are being developed; and seed orchards are being established to produce seed of superior or elite trees. This may mean that the requirements for seed in these countries will be met partly or wholly from home collections, even in the lean seed years. It has been generally observed (incidentally) that seed harvested from local stands of exotics often produces plants more fit for growing under the local conditions than does seed of the same species from abroad. Nevertheless, the seed from exotic plantations, seed orchards, and seed production stands may also become available for export to other countries in due course. As the results of past introductions of exotic species show the desirability of better choice of species and especially of better geographic or climatic races and genetic strains, the demand for such superior seed is bound to increase.
Considering all these elements, it can be concluded that the demand for authenticated seed from well-defined zones, and from carefully selected genetically superior trees, backed up by proper certificates of origin and quality, will continue upward. This should lend greater importance to a well-organized international trade in forest tree seed, based on close co-operation between private suppliers and government authorities.
