Director, Irrigation Training and Research Centre (ITRC) , CalPoly
Water Management Officer, FAO, Bangkok
Background
The preface of the 1998 India Water Resources Management Irrigation Sector Report (World Bank, 1998) by Arun Kumar, Secretary-in-charge at the Ministry of Water Resources of the Government of India, states that "what is needed is a total revolution in irrigation agriculture ... with much more focus on the improvement of the performance of existing irrigation facilities and provision of a client-focused irrigation service".
There are two important parts to this statement. First, the statement is optimistic because it assumes that performances can be dramatically improved. Once one arrives at this level of understanding (that the present performance is low, and that it is indeed possible to make positive changes), the modernization battle is half won. Second, the statement places irrigation into the realm of service-oriented utilities - a remarkable departure from traditional irrigation project design and operation criteria which are incapable of supporting modern field irrigation.
The same preface also calls for a "paradigm shift in emphasis ... toward improving the performance of existing irrigation agriculture" and stresses that "A Second Revolution in Irrigation Agriculture is required now."
To go beyond exhortations, and to actually implement the needed changes in the field, people need to know specifically what to do and how to do it. The devil is in the details of modernization programmes - only with appropriate modernization actions will satisfactory and rapid progress be made.
Previous authors have identified improved training as an essential yet missing ingredient that is required for this "second revolution" to be successful. The World Bank Technical Paper No 246, Modern Water Control in Irrigation (Plusquellec et al, 1994), states that
"The fundamental cause for the slow rate of technology transfer ... is a lack of knowledge of available technologies and a misunderstanding of the nature in irrigation, in particular ... a lack of sufficient training at all levels, from the university to the field."
In the 1996 Bangkok expert consultation on modernization of irrigation schemes, Wolter and Burt (1997) identified the type of water delivery service that will be needed to meet future demands. They state that "Modernization is understood as a process of change from supply-oriented to service-oriented irrigation", and that pragmatic training is seriously lacking at present. In the same consultation, Burt (1997) stated that in addition to having the correct vision for modernization, education is needed. The FAO point of view on modernization was articulated at the ITIS 4 conference, held in Marrakech, Morocco (Facon, 1997). In its proposed Action Plan, training is listed as one of three key elements for modernization.
At the ITIS 5 conference, Burt and Styles (1998) presented the results of an IPTRID/World Bank study of irrigation performance in 16 projects throughout the world. Good modernization programmes are rare, but the projects with partial and appropriate modernization perform better than traditional irrigation projects. Even in those projects with some aspects of modernization, there is a clear lack of practical and focused training. This lack of training is identified by the study as a key bottleneck to the rapid and appropriate modernization of irrigation projects. The IPTRID/World Bank study also notes that many of the important concepts which should be covered in training are universal - that is, they span all projects regardless of climate, culture and nationality.
The IPTRID/World Bank study of irrigation performance documented the large disparities between the water delivery service that is needed and the water delivery service that exists, even in partially modernized irrigation projects. In each of the 16 projects basic hardware and operational changes could be made that would immediately improve project performance in terms of efficiency, cost recovery or yields. Unfortunately, these opportunities were seldom recognized. Appropriate training will empower engineers and designers to recognize the potentials for improvement, and to know what solutions are available.
In short, there is a tremendous need for improving the performance of irrigation systems to meet the food needs of the future and various economic and environmental goals, there is clear evidence that modernization can successfully provide improved performance, and that rapid and appropriate modernization will only occur is there is an explosion in pragmatic training.
This proposal calls for the training of the engineering leadership that will galvanize the armies of the second irrigation revolution. Without excellent leaders who are well versed in modern tactics, well-intentioned revolutions fail, generally with a tremendous waste of personal effort and financial resources as well as environmental degradation. To develop the leadership cadre, FAO is proposing an Irrigation Modernization Training Programme which would consist of two parts: an initial training-of-the-trainers programme, as a premier post-graduate finishing programme for outstanding candidates; and a national upgrading programme. This would be a national or regional training programme for design and operating engineers on the concepts and details of irrigation system modernization. This project would nurture a world-wide cadre of specialists with a common vocabulary and common concepts and solutions. When combined with a technical support network, this cadre would provide the dynamic leadership and technical know-how to make the major irrigation changes that are needed.
The proposal is ambitious, but ambitious and unconventional actions are necessary. This training programme should be considered more important than any single construction or rehabilitation project - and should be funded accordingly.
The following sections provide a general outline of the concept, a draft curriculum outline of the training-of-the-trainers programme, and a skeleton outline of the main topics for the national upgrading programme.
Outline of the proposed irrigation modernization training programme
Objective
The objective of the programme will be to empower engineers in interested projects and nations to improve the performance of irrigation projects through modernization. A good modern design requires a thought process that starts with the definition of the desired level of water delivery service at all levels throughout the irrigation system. It then makes full use of advanced concepts in hydraulic engineering, agronomic science, irrigation engineering, economics and social science to identify the simplest components and a workable solution. Modernization is a complete process and is not to be confused with merely installing new physical components in a system such as a canal lining or automatic gates.
This empowerment of engineers will occur through increased awareness and knowledge of specific design and operation details that are not commonly understood. It will be accomplished by developing a high-quality cadre of well-trained and visionary engineers who understand the purposes and means of implementing successful modernization programmes in irrigation projects. To accomplish this, the framework and initial training plan cum curriculum must be developed for a standardized, pragmatic national upgrading programme.
Uniqueness
This programme will be unique among training programmes. It will emphasize pragmatic training that focuses on proven concepts of modernization which require common sense and basic engineer skills. It will be an active rather than a passive teaching programme. Participants will visit irrigation projects and conduct critical analyses of those irrigation projects through a unique rapid appraisal process (Burt and Styles, 1998). This will help the students digest the technical facts and principles learned in the classroom and laboratory. The future trainers will be the cream of the crop. Trainers must have demonstrated skills in motivation, innovation and synthesis as well as knowledge of technical details. Certification as a trainer in this programme would be quite prestigious. This programme would develop, expand and sustain badly needed in-country expertise in the new concepts and technologies of modernization.
Programme steps
The programme steps are as follows:
Candidates who successfully pass the examination will receive a certificate of training in the concepts of irrigation system modernization.
Because these 20 trainees will not be required to be fluent in English, teaching aids and study material and examinations must first be translated into the local languages.
Time frame
The proposed time frame is as follows:
Start date |
End date |
Step |
10/98 |
6/99 |
1. Support secured from leader states, countries and international donor agencies |
6/99 |
8/99 |
2. Nomination of trainer candidates |
3/99 |
8/99 |
3. Regional training hubs identified; curriculum finalized for the training of the trainers (T-T) |
9/99 |
9/99 |
|
10/99 |
12/99 |
5. First T-T programme |
1/00 |
6/00 |
|
6/00 |
11/00 |
7. & 8. Begin the national upgrading programme; second T-T programme |
Ongoing |
9. Programme revision | |
6/01 |
- |
10. Expand programme to other countries and regions |
Ongoing |
11. Additional training for qualified trainers |
Anticipated numbers of trainees
This programme will have a major impact because it is designed to be expanded, and because the quality of instruction will be kept very high. The table below indicates the possible progress of training. It assumes that each national upgrading programme class will be taught by two trainers, with four national upgrading programme classes per year for each group of two trainers. Each class will have 20 students. The table below assumes that ten qualified trainers will graduate from each T-T programme. It also assumes an attrition rate of 50 percent of the qualified trainers after two years of teaching by any single individual.
Year |
Number of trainers completing the training |
Number of national upgrading programme classes |
Number of students trained in year (including trainers & trainer prospects) |
Total number of students trained to date |
1999 |
10 |
0 |
25 |
25 |
2000 |
20 |
20 |
450 |
475 |
2001 |
20 |
40 |
850 |
1 325 |
2002 |
20 |
50 |
1050 |
2 375 |
2003 |
20 |
60 |
1250 |
3 625 |
Focal institutions and organizations
This programme is meant to begin a revolution in the training procedures related to the modernization of irrigation projects. As such, it will eventually involve almost every organization related to irrigation world-wide. In the initial steps, possible focal institutions and organizations are listed in the table below.
Function |
Organization |
Lead international support agency |
FAO |
Focal technical reference institution |
CalPoly ITRC |
Possible regional focal institutions |
Aurangabad WALMI, India; Kasetsart Univ., Thailand; Marrakech, Morocco; IMTA, Mexico |
National counterparts for certification |
ICID |
Oversight committee |
various |
Basic content of the training programmes
Draft curriculum outlines are provided on later pages for both the training-of-the-trainers programme and the national upgrading programme. Both have the same topics, but the former will cover the subjects in more depth and time, and also include out-of-country visits. Neither course will use differential equations, partial differential equations, or calculus - teaching of the important concepts does not require this level of mathematics.
The training programmes will be designed to cover material which is not traditionally taught, or will teach some material in a new way. The World Bank/IPTRID study by Burt and Styles (1998) clearly determines that pragmatic concepts of modernization are not well understood in irrigation projects. Examples of basic topics to be covered are:
The initial training programmes will emphasize fundamental concepts which are the foundation of modernization programmes. There are many other topics which are also important and which must be covered in future classes after the foundation is built. Example topics are:
These advanced topics generally require about one to three weeks each to be taught - as well as excellent computer facilities. The initial training programmes will be able to briefly cover these topics, but not in sufficient detail that the trainees will have any skills in them. The immediate need is the development of the more fundamental foundations for modernization programmes.
Conventional modernization programmes often focus on standard civil engineering efforts such as canal lining and replacement of deteriorated structures - these are not what is meant when one discusses the type of modernization programmes necessary for the second revolution. Such traditional topics can be and have been taught for many years in almost all countries. Modernization training will discuss whether or not the deteriorated structures are of the correct hydraulic design to provide the desired level of service, and whether or not a new type of structure should replace the old deteriorated structures. With regard to canal lining, a modernization programme would examine what capacities are required to provide the desired level of service and reliability, the new turnout density requirements, the new water surface levels in the canal which are required to minimize turnout flow fluctuations, etc. Therefore, examples of topics which will not be covered include concrete mixes, traditional concrete lining design and construction techniques, surveying or corrosion protection.
References
Burt, C.M. 1997. Modern water control and management practices in irrigation: methodology and criteria for evaluating the impact on performance. in Modernization of irrigation schemes: past experiences and future options. RAP Publication 1997/22. Water Report 12. FAO. pp 89-102
Burt, C.M. & S.W. Styles. 1998. Modern water control and management practices in irrigation: impact on performance. Proceedings of ITIS5 (Fifth International Network Meeting). 28-30 October. Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India
Facon, T.G. 1997. Perspectives in canal operation modernization: the FAO point of view. Proceedings of ITIS 4, Fourth International ITIS Network Meeting. Information Techniques for Irrigation Systems, 25-27 Apr, Marrakech, Morocco. pp 177-192
Plusquellec, H., C. Burt & H.W. Wolter. 1994. Modern water control in irrigation - concepts, issues and applications. World Bank Technical Paper No. 246. Irrigation and Drainage Series. 98 pp
Wolter, H.W. & C. Burt. 1997. Concepts of modernization. in Modernization of irrigation schemes: past experiences and future options. RAP Publication 1997/22. Water Report 12. FAO. pp 65-88
World Bank. 1998. India - Water resources management sector review. Report on the Irrigation Sector. Rural Development Unit, South Asia Region with Ministry of Water Resources, GoI. 139 pp
Facilities and equipment required at the regional focal institutions
To start the programme, the facility and equipment requirements will be minimal. These will include:
Topics to be taught at the regional focal institutions (3 weeks)
The following topics will be taught at the Regional Focal Institutions. These are essentially the same topics that will be taught in the National Upgrading Programme. The difference will be that the Trainers will also spend 7.5 additional weeks (including travel) visiting overseas projects, will receive training at the CalPoly ITRC Water Delivery Facility, and go through a more rigorous testing process. The first 3 weeks of class will include the following:
The Nature and Importance of Good Water Delivery Service
Hydraulic Principles
There are a number of hydraulic principles which need to be clearly understood before one can learn about control. These include:
Basic Concepts of Cross Regulator Control Hardware
The basic concepts which will be covered include:
Canals with upstream water level control
Because the vast majority of modernization projects will use upstream control, the modernization class will emphasize this form of control rather than other concepts such as downstream control and constant volume control. Those topics will be introduced, but with considerably less detail.
The majority of recent technical papers which have been published on canal automation deal with theoretical studies of downstream control and various forms of enhanced supervisory control. However, such schemes are few and far between in the actual world of irrigation applications, and most of the studies are theoretical rather than documentation of actual successful working, large-scale projects.
Example topics under upstream water level control:
* Begemann
* AMIL
* Types of gates
* Control strategy
Training at CalPoly ITRC Water Delivery Facility (2.5 weeks)
This facility has working demonstrations of almost all types of upstream and downstream control hardware, as well as a wide assortment of flow measurement equipment. It also has excellent equipment and facilities to teach about pumps and SCADA systems. ITRC also has sufficient computers for training the group on some specialized topics such as water balances.
The following topics will be covered there:
Review of Principles and Hardware (1 day)
Downstream Control (0.5 day)
Basics of pump recirculation plants (0.5 days)
SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (2.5 days)
Use of computer models to calibrate PI control algorithms (0.5 day)
This will be a demonstration with some hands-on experience. However, there will be insufficient time to develop expertise on this topic.
Flow Measurement and Control in Canals and Off-takes (2.5 days)
This will emphasize how to design broad-crested weirs, as well as options with meter gates for turnouts
Irrigation Efficiency and Water Balances (2 days)
Because many modernization programmes have goals related to improving irrigation efficiency, this topic must be covered. ITRC has conducted water balances and efficiency studies in numerous conditions, and has ample demonstration materials.
Topics to cover include:
Rapid Appraisal Process (2 days)
The RAP used developed by CalPoly ITRC will be explained. The use of RAP, including background computations and developing conclusions and recommendations, will be covered.
Field visits in the USA (2 weeks including travel)
Two irrigation districts will be visited in the U.S. An RAP will be conducted on each. Both districts will be undergoing some type of modernization, and both will primarily be gravity (canal) systems. Possible choices will be Imperial Irrigation District (200 000 ha, all canals, in an area of no rainfall and no downstream users and no rice), and Glenn-Colusa Irrigation District (about 100 000 ha, in an area with considerable winter rainfall, primarily rice, and mainly unlined canals).
Each district will be visited for 2-3 days, followed by 2 days of trainee discussion and computations and development of recommendations. The 2 days of discussion will be held in a town near the irrigation districts, so that rapid visits may be made to structures in question, or to talk again with district employees.
Field visits in other countries (3 weeks inc. travel)
Two irrigation projects will be visited in less developed countries. Two possible projects are Dantiwada in India and Rio Mayo in Mexico. Both projects are beginning the modernization process and have very different characteristics. Both projects have been examined in the World Bank/IPTRID study. Rio Mayo has active but imperfect water user associations, and has made tremendous progress in the last ten years. Dantiwada has farmers who are generally satisfied, and is attempting new water delivery schedules and the installation of new control structures. Again, trainees will conduct an RAP of each project, and there will be several days of discussion for each.
RAP of a local project
Trainees will conduct a RAP at a project near their local/regional training centre. This will be facilitated by the local/regional training centre, but the trainees will conduct this RAP without an instructor in attendance. Following the field work, they will then quantify external and internal process indicators, as well as make recommendations for project improvement. Their performance will be evaluated and graded by the primary instructors. This is the final place in the programme at which participants are evaluated for competence as criteria for completing the remainder of the programme.
Lesson Plan
Each trainee will prepare and execute a two-hour lesson plan on some aspect of modernization. This will be presented to the primary instructors, the other participants, and to any local engineers who may wish to attend. The lesson plan will be evaluated and graded by the primary instructors. Positive feedback will be provided to trainees.
Certification
The qualifying trainees will receive certificates from CalPoly ITRC and FAO acknowledging their successful completion of the rigorous programme, and their status as Qualified Trainers.
Skeleton outline of the National Upgrading Programme (NUP)
The topics of NUP will be identical to those covered under the Training-of-the-Trainers programme. However, they will not be convered in as much detail. It is anticipated that each session will be taught by a team of two Trainers. Each session will have 20 students, which is sufficiently small for the Trainers to provide individual attention to students.
Session A topics - (three weeks at a Regional Training Centre)
Session B (2 weeks)
The first week will consist of a Rapid Appraisal Process (RAP) conducted at a local irrigation project. All students will travel as a group throughout the irrigation project and fill out the forms, conduct interviews, collect data, etc. The second week will be spent at the Regional Training Centre reviewing RAP, developing external and internal process indicators, and constructing recommendations for how a modernization programme might proceed.
Session C (2 days)
Between session B and session C, students will return to their homes where they will have a chance to review the material from sessions A and B. Approximately 1 month later, they will regroup for session C for a one-day review and question-and-answer period. Following this, they will have a 4 hour examination of principles and concepts.
Certificate
Those who successfully pass the 4-hour examination and who have attended the complete sessions will be awarded a certificate of completion of Training in Concepts of Irrigation System Modernization.