4. Change facilitators

Eritrea’s dependence on agriculture is heavy. Therefore, safeguarding the productivity of the land is a major concern. Indeed, Eritrea’s pressing environmental problems are directly related to land degradation, deforestation, soil loss and the expansion of desertification, especially in the critical areas where agricultural output is vital. (NEMP-E, 1995).

Environmental protection is not the exclusive responsibility of the Government. Without a strong partnership between the people and the Government, the measures to be taken to protect the environment would not be materialsed.

The merciless cutting and destruction of forest resources in Eritrea have resulted in environmental degradation and expansion of desertification. Land is exposed to erosion and the fertile part of the soil has been depleted. The supply of fuelwood and poles for construction has shrunk every year and it has reached a stage where the need of the people cannot be fulfilled.

Agricultural yields both qualitatively and quantitatively are low. In addition to the low seasonal rainfall, deforestation and soil erosion have contributed a lot to land degradation and consequently to low agricultural productivity.

The indiscriminate hunting of wildlife species and the destruction of their habitat have also resulted in the extinction of certain species. Some species have migrated to neighbouring countries while very few are existing in the country.

Although it is difficult to combat and reverse the situation in a short period of time, at least we can minimise the situation by developing a strategy, which could be done step by step. The task of combating desertification does not rest only on one governmental institution or ministry but it must be a collective action of all ministries, communities and non- governmental organisations. All these must put their concerted efforts and resources to improve the precarious conditions. There should be an integrated approach between the different sectors of different ministries to combat desertification and thus improve resource production.

The availability of deadwood supply for, say the next two decades provides a unique opportunity to bring about a fundamental realignment of fuelwood consumption demand with sustainable production levels in the Western Lowlands. This would involve the following:

The reduction of demand for woodfuel by around 20 %;

The enhancement of biological productivity by 37 % (from 0.15 to 0.21t/ha/yr);

The improvement utilisation of available deadwood stock and live wood increment resource stock- effectively increasing accessibility by 20 % to around 80 % of the forest resources.

But, if the business as usual scenario is considered, fuelwood consumption may be expected to increase owing to natural population growth of around 3% (2.9%) per year, and the annual woodfuel gap might increase to as much as 0.36 tones by the year 2010. Thus this is a clear indication that the woodfuel energy crisis is a very serious issue in the regions, and of course at national level (LRCPD, MoA, 1999).

More serious situation would emerge if the analyses were carried out over a long-term basis, i.e. beyond 2010. Considering the fragile nature of the ecosystem of the Western Lowlands, drastic improvements cannot be expected on the productivity of the natural resource base, hence woodfuel production would not be able to meet the ever-growing demand.

The following are some of the change facilitators.

Implementation of the new Land Tenure Policy.

Provision of Alternative Fuels/Modern Fuels.

Capacity Building and Budget Allocation.

Extension Works and Public Awareness.

Agricultural Concessions.

Implementation of the new Forestry and Wildlife Sector Policy.

Development of Tourism.

Infrastructure Development.

Decentralisation.

Introduction to Modern Management Principles.

Improve Agriculture Sector to Enhance Productivity.

Regional and International Collaboration.

Monitoring, Evaluation and Statistics.

The objectives of Eritrea’s new land policy are to establish a revised tenure system that will encourage long-term investment in agriculture and prudent environmental management, assure women rights to land on an equal basis with men, and promote commercial agriculture. The key points in the land policy are that ownership of land would be the exclusive right of Government; that every citizen and foreign investor would have access to land for farming, for pasture, for housing and for development purposes, and that these would be usufructory rights only. As regards communal pastures and woodlands, the villages would continue to use these according to custom, and the government was empowered to issue general or special regulations and directives pertaining to their use.

This policy was enacted under the Proclamation No.58/1994, which was put into effect the intentions of the Micro-Policy with regard to land tenure. It was designed largely to deal with the failings of the traditional system of "Diesa" tenure land system in the highlands. It declared that, in Eritrea, all land is owned by the State, and that any right over land shall be effective upon government recognition and approval; the right was to be recorded in a land register.

Policy development in Eritrea now calls for the community participation in the management of natural resources. The old model of FFW or CFW was successful to the extent it engaged community participation in the short term. But, it has no mechanism to engage them beyond that because they are not able to identify with objectives and outputs. The "Forest Closure" programme, aimed at the recovery of natural vegetation, has the potential to shift the focus from the delivery of inputs to outputs and objectives, providing the communities usufruct rights are not alienated and that there is a system of sustainable forest management applied. Until now, there has been no research recommendations forthcoming concerning basic management guidelines covering regeneration, protection, the role of grazing, fire, plant succession, rotation periods, etc. should become priorities.

Owing to the lack of individual tenure under existing land tenure systems, (the new Land Tenure Policy has not been implemented) planting on or around cultivable land is rare. The process of land reform will grant farmers lifetime and inheritable usufruct rights over identified farmlands. This land reform will afford them a choice of using some of their land, even cultivable land, for tree production because of potential value of forest products such as poles and fuelwood. In addition, tree planting would be of value to the assigned occupants of land as a means of demarcation. In these two aspects, at least, the land reform process will provide an opportunity for farm level afforestation. In general the land tenure policy has to create an equitable land tenure system which encourages long term investment in land improvements and conservation works.

With the adoption of a policy of Food Security as opposed to Food-Sufficiency and the introduction of individual land tenure, there should be greater opportunity to plant trees on sites with sufficient soil depth and moisture if the farmer so decides. Also the process of land demarcation should offer a historic opportunity for Eritrean farmers to plant boundary trees of their choice.

In respect of Farm Planting, the introduction of the new land tenure system seeks to introduce trees into farming systems with objectives of:

Enhancement of crop productivity through agroforestry;

Enhancement of pasture productivity through mixed tree-grass planting;and

Food security through diversification of farm activities.

The involvement of local farmers in a community approach to production offers an opportunity for the introduction of soil and water conservation techniques, which might not be attractive investments at the individual farmer level, owing to the hiatus in land reform in the highlands. Moreover, appropriate agroforestry interventions applied to integrated agriculture would offer new opportunities for forestry to play a supportive role to food security in Eritrea.

Specifically, the planting of trees as hedgerows along farm boundaries could provide shelter from wind for the soil and crop, shade for farmers and livestock, fodder for livestock, fertility improvement through mulch and nitrogen fixation, and wood for fuel. Given the size of the farm blocks (upwards of 50 hectares) in the Integrated Agriculture Schemes (IAS), the challenge will be to demonstrate the utility of trees without disrupting the mechanised systems.

In general efforts will be made to plant about 2,000 hectares of land every year for the coming two decades, and yearly enough amount of seedlings will be raised to cover these areas.

The Land Tenure Policy should conduct a national land use classification survey to include grazing, farming, conservation preparatory to formulating a national land use plan; implement the current land tenure bill and ensure its recommendations are starting with the areas of land use conflict (the Western Lowlands) and promote the directives of the new land tenure bill to all land users and ensure compliance.

As said earlier, like in most underdeveloped countries biomass is the major household energy source in the Eritrean society. In 1998, the total primary energy supply was 685,710 ton oil equivalent (TOE) of which 441,641 TOE or 66.3 % were derived from local biomass fuels i.e. firewood, charcoal, cow-dung and agricultural residues and the remaining balance of 244,069 TOE or 33.7 % are from imported oil products. 44,230 TOE of the fuelwood were converted to charcoal at an efficiency of 30% (Semere and Zemenfes, 2000).

The total final energy supply for Eritrea as shown in Table 12 was 619,580 TOE, of which 66.3 % were derived from local biomass fuels, 31.7 % from oil products and 2.04 % from electricity. The final energy consumption per capita was 194 KgOE (Kilogram Oil Equivalent) with modern energy electricity and oil products accounting for 65.3 KgOE. (Semere and Zemenfes, 2000).

The per capita share of modern fuel for Eritrea is very low even by some African standards, and compares poorly with the Republic of South Africa (2350 KgOE), Egypt (1630 KgOE), Algeria (890 KgOE), Zambia (130 KgOE), Kenya (110 KgOE), Ghana (110 KgOE), Sudan (70 KgOE) but higher than a few countries like Mozambique (44 KgOE), Tanzania (30 KgOE), Ethiopia (20 kgOE) (Semere and Zemenifs, 2000).

Per capita electricity generation for Eritrea was 61 kWh while consumption was 48 kWh in 1998. In comparison, per capita electricity generation in kWh for the Republic of South Africa was 4301, Egypt 744, Zimbabwe 694, Kenya 129, Tanzania 54, Sudan 47, Uganda 37, Ethiopia 21 and Chad 12. (Semere and Zemenfes, 2,000).

From this one understands that the energy consumption from modern fuels is low for Eritrea hence in the coming two decades efforts will be made to substitute traditional fuels by modern ones. Efforts must be made to provide kerosene, LPG and electricity to the rural as well as to the urban ones at a subsidised price. However, the subsidised price should not deter other development activities. In addition people should be provided with improved stoves that consume less woodfuel and produce high-energy yield. Feasibility studies will be made on the use of biogas, briquette making, wind energy, solar energy and other energy conservation techniques. The studies should include maintenance and upkeep requirements. The experience of other developing countries must be considered in the designing of alternative sources of energy. Besides, the present afforestation activities should also continue in a more pronounced and effective way.

In nowadays as it is seen in Table 13 there is a clear trend in shifts towards the use of modern fuels such as electricity, kerosene and LPG. There is a decrease in consumption of traditional biomass especially fuelwood and charcoal. This may be attributed to the Government decrees not to cut live trees for energy purposes and to not produce and sell proper charcoal or kiln charcoal, or to modernisation or it could also be due to scarcity and hence an unaffordable prices or a mixture of all these factors. The observation is that people are endorsing and respecting the government regulations.

In addition to these the Government should have short and long term studies towards the provision of alternatives in the next two decades.

The short-term study will focus on the analysis of:

The impact of the government’s and utilities’ policies and programmes on the provision of modern energy to rural areas for domestic and income generating activities.

The impact of government and utilities’ international framework on the provision of modern energy to rural areas for domestic use and for income generating activities.

The long-term will focus on:

The analysis of decentralised private sector energy production and distribution activities in rural areas;

Comparative analysis of demand for modern energy in rural areas actually existing and future potential created by income generation activities and domestic use.

Analysis of components for promoting the production of deployment of renewable energy technologies by private entrepreneurs in rural areas, e.g. market research, financing mechanism, provision of infrastructure for production, repair and maintenance, training (entrepreneurs, technical, managerial) and technical back-up.

The energy demand for Eritrea by fuel type and sector up to year 2020 is given in Tables 14 and 15. According to these tables the demand for electricity, the consumption of gasoline, kerosene / Jet fuel, diesel, fuel oil and LPG will increase. The level of fuelwood will almost be the same as today. Charcoal consumption will decrease, and consumption of dung and agri-residues will increase (Ministry of Energy and Mines, 2000).

The country has been undergoing transition period from a war-torn society to national rehabilitation and reconstruction. Institution building is one aspect of the construction efforts. At the time of independence, there were a few government institutions and the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF) had to establish some of them from scratch. Thus policy formulation for the different sectors of the Eritrean economy is part and parcel of the institution building. Indeed, The drafting of the NEMP-E is a component of the institution building process.

The Ministry of Agriculture is the main institution concerned with forestry. The MoA is mandated to conserve and manage the forestry resources in the country. The MoA has three operational departments: The Land Resources Crop Production Department, The Research and Human Resources Development Department and The Animal Resources Department (See Organisational Chart).

Under the newly decentralised structure, the Land Resource and Crop Production Department (LRCPD) of the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for policy formulation, regulatory, coordination and technical backstopping functions concerning food production, forestry and wildlife. Planning and implementation have been devolved to Zoba (region) level. Thus, the policies of Integrated Agriculture and Agro-forestry emanate from the central level, and the proposals arise from the Zoba. Formulation of development programmes must, therefore, be cautious not to run ahead of the Zobas. Presently, there is a shortage of manpower both in terms of training and experiences at all levels throughout the country. If a sector has shortages of trained and experienced manpower, it cannot fulfill its responsibilities and duties adequately. In order to cater the shortage, training should be given at all levels.

For the coming two decades, the number of trained professional and sub-professionals needed is given in Table 16. Training could either be within the country or abroad and it could be on job training, in- service training or long-term training. In the coming two decades efforts will be made to represent the Forestry and Wildlife Division at National, Zoba and sub-Zoba levels. In the fields of training, relationship with the Asmara University should be a must. The training of forest guards and peasants will be given when deemed necessary.

Despite the appreciable Government efforts deployed since independence, the forestry infrastructure in the country is still poor to respond to the development requirements. In the coming two decades a great deal of effort is needed to provide the Forestry Administration with the necessary means and adequate infrastructure to implement its development programmes. This would include staff quarters and office construction and/ or rehabilitation, solar power supply, road rehabilitation and/or improvement, boundary demarcation, nursery rehabilitation and operation, water reservoirs and fire surveillance tower construction.

The Forestry and Wildlife Sector of the Ministry of Agriculture should have adequate budget to effectively run its annual programmes.

H2!4 .4. Extension works and Public Awareness!H2

As said earlier although most of the populations are rural dwellers the population in unison should be made aware of the prevailing precarious environmental conditions. The environment is changing slowly but steadily into an irreversible condition, as a result of which agricultural crop yield, livestock products, forestry resources, and forest areas, etc. are dwindling in quality, quantity and bio-diversity. Diversification of crops and animal husbandry are becoming impossible in certain localities because of environmental degradations. Urban as well as rural dwellers should be made aware about the causes and effects of environmental degradations through seminars and workshops. These seminars should be able to raise public awareness of and commitment to conservation while emphasising the link between conservation and production in rural communities.

Disseminate "ethics of environment" among the different populations who are using the same environmental resources through education and the mass media. These ethics of environment should include not only modern western–oeriented values about the preservation of environment, but also indigenous norms and customs that are of relevance for the conservation and management of natural resources (Alexander, 1998).

The Ministry of Information of the GOE should play a major role in disseminating environmental issues through the mass media (radio, newspaper and television). In addition to these, schools, colleges and universities should strengthen the courses on environmental issues and for those who do not yet have any they should include them in their curricula.

The present practice of involving the student body in pit-digging and tree planting during summer vacations should continue in a more intensive way as this will make the students aware of the environmental conditions and in creating work oriented and job loving societies. One has to recognise that if sustainable development is to be achieved, changes in peoples’ attitudes and practices may be necessary. Planning and management must promote values that support a new ethic of sustainable living. One should accept that planning and management should not be fixed, but dynamic.

Individuals should also be encouraged to plant multiple use trees in their compounds and along their farmlands. Seedlings may be given at a reasonable price. The price for tree seedlings should balance the cost of production with maximum access and make seedling production financially self-sustaining.

Last but not least there should be an Arbor Day once a year depending on the locality where every individual of the locality should participate in tree planting and protection, as mere planting has no value unless it is accompanied by some mechanism of protection. One has to realise that if sustainable development is to come, changes in peoples’ attitudes and practices should come first.

Decline of forest cover in the Western Lowlands had a dramatic effect on the environment especially on biological diversity and on the well being of local people. Concessions for modern agricultural products in the Western Lowlands have been a major single source of deforestation in the past few years. The system of concession, where vast clear felling of woodlands took place, should be studied in detail and agricultural concessions will be assessed for potential environmental impact before licenses are issued. Environmental considerations should be part of the final agreement and monitoring should be done on a regular basis. Concessionaires should be recommended to carryout economic analyses before deciding on land use. Diversification /alternative land use/ should be encouraged where possible. Land for concessions should be allocated as part of a regional land use plan, which considers the interests of all land users, present and future. Timber cleared by concessionaires should be the property of the government not the concessionaires.

The Italian colonial policy was less concerned about forest ecosystems. Because of these the Italians converted about 300,000 hectares of forestland into agricultural land.

Although the Land Tenure policy is not yet implemented the Government was very much concerned about land allocation for concessions especially along riverbanks. During the period 1995-1999 about 60,000 hectares of forestland were cleared for agricultural purposes and some another 50,000 hectares designated to be issued. With the implementation of the Land Tenure Policy and other development policies we believe that in the coming two decades land allocation and forestland clearings for agricultural purposes would be minimised.

As it is said time and again agriculture especially crop production in Eritrea is dependent on rain fall and soil moisture. Rainfall in the country is very low and variable. Because of this agricultural yield is poor and unsustainable. The policy is to put less emphasis on land-based industry and more on the development of industrial and service sectors. Agricultural concessions will be limited on the western lowlands and this will be for a short-term measure to attain food-sufficiency.

Given the above developmental schemes the implementation will not be at the expense of the forests and destruction. Efforts will be made to integrate human, forestry and livestock activities so that optimum results can be obtained without jeoparadising the environment. This is the main policy of the Government of Eritrea.

The pre-existing policy, and associated rules and legislation are known as Forest and Wildlife Conservation and Development No. 192/1980, which were inherited from the Ethiopian administration. A new one, which puts the environmental conditions of Eritrea, and the wishes, aspirations and demands of the Eritrean people, has been drafted. The draft defines the following sub-sector objectives to:

Produce fuelwood and construction poles;

Promote soil conservation through reforestation;

Restore the ecosystem through natural regeneration;

Promote the development of non-wood forest products;

Protect the existing known populations of endangered wildlife while undertaking a national reconnaissance of remnant habitats and associated communities.

The technical domain would not be confined to the protection of a few endangered large mammals, selected habitats and, perhaps, some unique remnant forests. It should be made clear the approach to the conservation of biological diversity would be comprehensive i.e. at the ecosystem level, as well as species and genetic levels. In other words, the responsibility for the conservation and management of natural forests, woodlands and plantation forests would be involved.

The policy puts into consideration international agreements such as the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species (CITES, 1974), and the Convention on Biological Diversity (COB, 1992), Convention to Combat Desertification, Framework Convention on Climatic Change and other related conventions.

Tourism, including both international and domestic tourism, is one of the most dynamic and important socio-economic sectors in the world today. According to Tourism Vision 2020, published by the World Tourism Organisation in 1997, there will be about 700 million international tourist arrivals in the year 2000, about one billion in 2010 and approximately 1.6 billion arrivals in 2020. By 2020, total international tourist arrivals in Africa will almost triple to reach 75 million, an average growth rate of 5.4 percent a year. By 2020, Africa will account for about 4.7 percent of world arrivals. Southern and Eastern Africa will have the best growth prospects.

Domestic tourism is estimated to be about ten times the amount of international tourism in terms of tourist trips. Domestic tourism is expected continue growing rapidly in all the world’s regions including Africa.

With its many natural, archaeological, historical, and cultural attraction and advantages of location relatively near major tourist markets in Europe and the Middle East, Eritrea potentially can participate in the growth and benefits of tourism being experienced globally and in Africa. The country already has an emerging tourism sector, which can greatly expand if the conditions are suitable for growth. Fortunately, the government has given priority to developing this sector. Tourism, which is sometimes called "smokeless industry", can generate direct economic benefits of employment, income, foreign exchange earnings and government revenues. Tourism can also serve as a catalyst for the expansion of agriculture and fisheries, manufacturing handicrafts and construction and help justify and pay for infrastructure improvements. Visits to the country by tourists may also lead to attracting more foreign investment to the country. These benefits will improve the living standard of the society hence the dependency upon forest products will be minimised. But if tourism is not carefully planned, developed and managed it will have impacts on environmental degradation, loss of economic benefits and social distortions. A basic reason for planning tourism is to ensure that it will be sustainable both at present and in the future.

In addition to economic benefits, tourism can be a stimulus for conservation of the country’s natural environment and cultural heritage because these features comprise the primary attractions for tourists. Eritrea is generally not well known internationally, and tourism can help introduce the environment, history and culture of the country to the world. Through this exposure, the distinctive character of Eritrea and its people can better understood and appreciated internationally.

Developing domestic tourism is also important in Eritrea. Domestic tourism provides recreation opportunities for Eritreans, helps them learn about and enjoy their own rich environmental, historic and cultural heritage including the recent Struggle for Independence, and distributes economic benefits more widely through the country, especially from urban to rural areas.

Table 17 shows the targeted domestic tourism travel, which is expected to reach about 1.5 million trips annually by 2020, based on a gradual increase of the growth rate of travel as Eritreans become more affluent. Domestic trips are defined as travel involving at least one overnight stay, and not day trips. Domestic trips include travel for purposes of holiday and leisure, visiting friends sand relatives, business and government. The growth of domestic travel should be carefully monitored and adjustments made if necessary. Domestic travel may develop more rapidly depending on future economic conditions.

According to the National Tourism Development Plan of 1999, Eritrea possesses significant opportunities for developing tourism, which should be taken advantage of.

Major opportunities include:

Important tourism resources related to the natural environment including good beaches and marine areas offering water recreation and diving potential; very scenic areas especially in the highlands; several proposed national parks and other types of protected areas which include some wildlife and forests; unusual features such as the Escarpment and Bada Depression; and some hot springs suitable for spa development.

Important tourism resources related to the long varied history and cultural diversity of the country including archaeological and historic sites; Struggle for Independence military sites; interesting building architecture especially in Asmara and Massawa; unusual features such as the Massawa-Asmara scenic railway; and cultural patterns of various ethnic groups.

Relative proximity to major tourist markets in Europe and the Middle East and a potentially important type of market of the overseas Eritreans who are living in various places.

Equable climate suitable for year-round tourism in the highlands.

Some existing development of tourist facilities and services, access to some attractions and adequate infrastructure development in some places which are suitable for commencing tourism development, especially for more adventurous tourists.

A safe environment with little crime taking place in urban or rural areas, and generally clean urban environments compared to many other places in Africa.

All land is owned by the government, which allows for convenient allocation of sites for tourism development.

A suitable government that is achieving economic recovery of country and provides a suitable environment for attracting investment.

Some of the major constraints include:

Human resources capacity: there is a severe shortage of appropriate human capital because of the impact of the successive decades of occupation and war. The long-term solution lies in a concerted national effort aimed at increasing educational and skill development opportunities for all Eritreans consistent with absorptive capacity of the economy.

Financial and foreign exchange gap: With a low per capita income and widespread poverty, Eritrea’s ability to mobilise sufficient domestic savings to finance required investments is limited. Export earnings are also inadequate to provide the foreign exchange necessary to import the machinery, equipment and essential production inputs that are critical for achieving rapid economic recovery and growth. These gaps need to tackle through well-planned mobilisation of internal and external financial resources and a more aggressive export development programme.

Physical infrastructure: Although improvements are being made, the supply and quality of Eritrea’s infrastructure are still inadequate to encourage private investment. Inadequate infrastructure and especially difficulty access to some area remains one of the major considerations in developing tourism.

Institutional capacity: Eritrea’s administrative, legal, commercial, judiciary and regulatory institutions are still evolving. The capacity of the private sector is also limited to conduct business competitively.

Inadequacy of information: Although improvements have been made over the last few years, there is still a great dearth of relevant, timely and reliable economic and social information. However, The National Statistics Office has recently completed a household income and expenditure survey and is in the process of conducting a population census. It is also organising compilation of national accounts statistics.

Technological challenges: Decades of occupation and war resulted in destruction and neglect of the limited technological base that existed. During the short-term, these technological and managerial gaps can be mitigated by importation of both physical and human capital. Over the long term, the solution lies in accelerated national human resources development (National Tourism Development Plan, 1999).

Table 18 shows international tourist arrivals in Eritrea from 1994-2000. According to this table the number of arrivals in 1998, 1999 and 2000 has decreased considerably due to the war with Ethiopia. It is hoped that the war will stop soon and the number of tourist arriving to Eritrea will increase considerably. The estimated arrivals in the next two decades are given in Table 19.

The GoE is organising a permanent dialogue with all actors interested in order to discuss the different options and to reach a large consensus. The government is encouraging and giving great importance to private initiatives on the field of tourism development. In the long-term, most of the tourism activities should be in private sectors following the path of the commonly approved and mainly self-controlled strategy.

The perspectives of tourism development in Eritrea should have threefold objectives. They are:

It should produce a substantial economic benefit in terms of foreign exchange;

It should contribute to social progress through mutually beneficial encounter between tourists and Eritrean population, creating income, employment, upgrade the professional training level, improving the knowledge of languages, giving a general positive impulse for education, etc. and avoiding to a maximum extent the possible negative effects.

It should be respectful of the environment. Tourism development in Eritrea should contribute to a better environment consciousness of the tourist and of the local population.

Prof. Dr. Jost Krippendorf in his report on The Perspectives of Tourism Development in Eritrea, 1993, gave the following the recommendations for tourism development in Eritrea:

Eritrea needs a small-scaled tourism development which is compatible with the size of the country, its population and its stage of development;

Eritrea needs a practically oriented step-by-step tourism development: one carefully planned practical action followed by another one rather than a countrywide tourism development. Relatively slow, step by step development is also an adequate means to avoid dependency of too much foreign capital;

Eritrea needs a tourism development which primarily uses what exists already (existing infrastructure, tourist facilities, etc.) by upgrading its quality in order to improve its income, social and environmental efficiency;

Eritrea needs a tourism development which consciously strives for and market segments of tourist who are ready to moderate their needs and adjust their wishes to what is locally possible. However, a minimum standard has to be defined and guaranteed.

Eritrea needs a tourism development that is in a first stage largely designed and determined by the official policy and its institutions. A strict framework of regulations, laws, incentives, etc. is necessary to guide tourism d evelopment into the right directions.

4.7.1. Employment in the Tourism Sector

Employment in tourism is the direct employment in hotels, tourist restaurants, tour and travel services and retail shops catering to tourists and indirect employment in the supplying sectors of tourism such as agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing and craft production. There is also induced employment generated by the local spending by employees in tourism. Employment is often measured based on number of hotel rooms, with the employee-room ratio for direct employment ranging widely from less than one in budget hotels and guest houses to two in high quality resorts which offer many services to guests. Employment can also be calculated more specifically by determining the categories of employment and estimating the number of persons working in each category (National Tourism Development Plan, 1999).

Based on the employment survey conducted in 1999, the total number of direct employees in tourism is 5,658. This includes a large proportion of restaurant employees. It should be noted that most restaurants serve a local clientele and not tourists. If indirect employment is a ration of 2.0 to direct employment and the indirect employment a factor of 0.6, then a total of almost 20,000 jobs can be attributed to tourism sector (including the restaurant jobs as noted above).

Tourism already generates some economic benefits in Eritrea and these benefits can be much greater in the future as a result of the expected growth of tourism. In Eritrea when tourism is well developed it may contribute from 5 to 10 percent or more of the GDP.

Construction of schools, health clinics, veterinary clinics and similar other infrastructures will develop and raise the standard of living of the society. People will try to have a few but healthy livestock species which produce high and better yields milk, meat, hides and skins. This will lessen the impact on the already fragile ecosystem. Schools should be constructed and school age children should attend schools. Attending classes will bring, among other things, awareness of environment. Efforts should be made to raise the Human Development Index of Eritrea. The promotion of literacy in both school age and adult populations is expected to have a number of indirect positive environmental effects, including improvements in overall nutrition and child care, improved hygiene and sanitation, and more rapid adoption of other environmentally favourable practices (e.g. soil and water conservation and reduction of water contamination) that can be promulgated through extension to a better educated population.

Health and sanitation centres should be constructed in rural areas so as to combat health problems and produce a healthy society. In the coming two decades efforts will be made to introduce acceptable and affordable sanitation systems in order to reduce health risks and encourage the spread and adoption of appropriate technologies and methods. Construction of health centers, health stations, health posts and veterinary clinics and the training of personnel will have positive effects on environmental issues. These will be done in the coming two decades.

In the coming two decades, efforts will be made to provide safe and reliable water supplies to the people living around the forest areas and other local residents alike through well digging and borehole drilling which is expected to have a positive effect on health of the population around the forest areas and adjacent villages. Creation of multiple water sources in different localities will increase water in times of drought and provide alternative safe water sources in the event of contamination of a given source. Private owned factories and industries should be constructed in rural areas so that there will be an employment opportunity and raise of income for the rural society thereby the living standard is raised. The rise in standard of living will bring about a rise in the purchasing power of the people as a result of which the dependency on woodfuel will be minimised and there will be a shift to the use of the more efficient modern fuels.

Quite separate from the issues of the right ministerial "home" for conservation and environmental protection, is the question of the respective roles of the forestry and wildlife services at the various levels of decentralised government. Planning is becoming "bottom-up" process and that the regional administration will become responsible for management and implementation of these plans in respect of forest and wildlife in their administrative areas (except for National Parks/ Reserves). The roles of the MOA, would then fall into the following categories:

Strategic Planning –This would include policy development, proposal of legislation, economic planning etc.;

Regulation – Reporting systems, licensing, supervision, evaluation, monitoring and audit;

Service Provision-Research, in-service training, documentation and information services, inventory, mapping and remote sensing, extension and publicity; and

National executive functions- Planning and management of National Parks and Reserves.

There should be some form of decentralisation, which spurs development, and most importantly facilitate the proper protection and conservation of the nation’s resources. An important corollary of decentralised government is the collection and disbursement of revenues collected from the exploitation of local natural resources. Issuance of licenses for gum Arabic and incense could be done at the Zoba (Region) level. The revenue collected from these products will be used in developing the Zoba and access to the revenue streams could prove catalytic in the introduction of responsible community management. However, local and Zoba capacity must be strengthened both financially and administratively before decentralisation is materialsed.

Eritrea is a new country, which got its independence recently. The country is now in its transition period. Because of this the country is undergoing a post-war reconstruction activities in some development areas in which agriculture is one of them. The Regional Offices are being strengthened in human manpower, finance and administration. Projects are planned and implemented in the respective regions and based on their priorities are approved by the Office of the concerned ministry. Annual budgets and annual work plan are done in the regions and are sent to the respective ministry for approval. The experts and officials of the region do monitoring and evaluation work. However, a copy of planned /achieved report is sent to the concerned ministry for follow-ups.

The Regional Head of Economic Development is responsible for all activities in the region. Regions can employ new people, can upgrade or otherwise employees, without consulting the ministry. These practices will lead into higher form of decentralisation, which should be done cautiously.

The existing management plans must be strengthened with respect to budget; manpower and other resources and new ones must be introduced that go with the needs of the sector. Judicious use of resources so as to get sustainable products should be the aim of any management plan. The management principles should aim at improving the quality of human life in a sustainable manner and to enable human beings to realise their potential and lead lives of fulfillment. The principles should also understand that good management of renewable terrestrial, coastal and marine resources, are of strategic importance for social and economic development, and are therefore cost-effective. The principles should also aim at developing integrated management strategies that allow for multiple use of natural resources, in which complementary activities are integrated and conflicting activities are segregated; aim should be made at developing a planning and management process that is sensitive to the question of gender, class and equity.

Formal afforestation programmes, which are implemented without farmer and community involvement, carry attendant risks of budgetary constraints, neglect and ultimate failure. Planting proposals for any object should ensure their involvement. Involving local populations in the planning process, recognising that local people are the actual day-to-day managers of natural resources, to ensure effective management plans and an equitable pattern of socioeconomic development. The most successful afforestation has been the municipal and roadside plantations. The technical implementation has been super, because budget has been committed; and, follow-up is guaranteed because the objectives have been clear and popular.

In the coming two decades efforts will be made to produce fuelwood and construction material from private woodlots combined with increased royalties on existing forest lumber and non-wood products; ensure the sustainable exploitation of wood and other forest products from multiple trees species; encourage woodlots in per-urban areas by, inter alia, increasing the stumpage royalty to commercial levels; identify trees with multiple uses and promote methods of incorporating them into current land use systems; and develop non-wood products. On the regulation part develop appropriate national guidelines to minimise pollution and environmental impact that are compatible with those of other institutions to create an integrated national approach; and identify areas requiring protection by closure and the duration of closure, and remove such areas from use so as to restore ecosystems through natural regeneration.

Considerable caution should be exercised before embarking on fresh afforestation programmes. In regard to fuelwood, it has been argued that the current shortages are likely to be filled by alternative energy sources somewhat sooner than a significant fuelwood supply could be forthcoming from new planting. Nevertheless, pole production presents a more attractive objective as an import substitute.

The policy of the invading government was to make the country devoid of any type of vegetation. There was neither a formal policy on afforestation nor any substantial work on it. There was no involvement of the public either in planning or in the execution of any forestry projects. No one expects this to happen from an invading government.

The rate of deforestation will not increase in the coming two decades now that the GoE has put more emphasis on environmental protection. The MoA has earmarked to afforest 2,000 ha. annually for the coming two decades.

In addition to this as it is seen in Tables 20 and 21 there are some potential forest areas which are planned to be enclosed for future development. As seen in Table 21 about 450,000 hectares of forest area will be managed under "closure system". These proposed forest areas can be enclosed in those Zobas where there is potential but no enclosure is being practiced. These forest closures are to be managed so as to give sustainable forest products without harming the environment.

In the coming two decades, feasibility study should be made on the suitability of plantation site for the production of timber and once the sites are selected plantation should be carried out for timber production. Private individuals must be encouraged to carryout large-scale plantation activities for profit and the product should be sold at market price.

The most promising future direction for afforestation in Eritrea would be the reestablishment of the productive resource base for gum Arabic and incense production in those areas of natural occurrence. Eritrea already enjoys a comparative advantage in the environmental requirements of the species concerned, and has existing marketing and processing arrangements, as well as trade outlets. An afforestation programme would need to be accompanied by the introduction of principles of sustainable management, improved harvesting techniques and community participation in benefits. There is a need for continuing research on these aspects.

Assessment must be made on the potential wildlife areas with a view of establishing a net work of protected areas to conserve key habitats and wildlife populations. The initial reconnaissance, which has provisionally identified some key areas for conservation, must be strengthened

In general there is a link between deforestation, soil and water conservation and agricultural activity. Hence proper attention should be given to the potential environmental consequences of investment decision. The main threats to the avi-fauna and flora are lack of legislation, lack of protected area system, local reliance on natural resources with few alternatives, lack of data on populations and distributions, lack of awareness of the value of nature, and of information on how to harvest resources sustainably, unplanned and uncontrolled development; lack of national conservation education programme, and over population of livestock. In general a national reconnaissance of habitats must be undertaken.

Inventory species identification and management plan of riverine forests of Barka, Gash and Anseba rivers have been completed and the plan should be implemented. In the coming two decades the same should be done for the natural forests of Semeinawi Bahri and Rora Habab of Semeinawi Keih Bahri and the forests of Abahani of Debub Zoba. These forests will cater the ever-increasing demand of the people to day and two decades form now.

In the coming two decades research will be made on Opuntia ficus-indica. The species, though it is exotic, grows extensively in the Eritrean highlands. It is a multipurpose species. It is used as food source for human consumption, fodder for livestock, and protects soil and water erosion when planted along hillsides, water catchment areas and other vulnerable sites. This species is propagated vegetatively, however, is not properly utilised. In the coming twenty years research will be done to asses its biological values in detail, its silvicultural behaviours, propagation methods and hybridasation compatibility and methods with other related species. In addition to these research will be carried out on what can be extracted from the fruit say for example edible jam and other medicinal values will be assessed.

Another multipurpose species that ought to be given emphasis and to be studied in detail is the doum plant (Hyphanea thebaica). It is one of the main sources of income for the lowlanders. The leaves of this species are used for as fodder for livestock and wildlife species, basket making, door mat making, mat, hat, sweep, and fibers are used for making ropes, etc. The fruit is edible and also used for the making of button; the wood is resistant to termite attack and salt. Because of these characteristics, the wood is used for house construction especially on the costs of the Red Sea and for the making of railway cross-bars. When planted along riverbanks the tree provides a good protection against erosion.

The species is now under utilised especially the leaves. In the coming twenty years efforts will be made to plant the species in large areas along the riverbanks and other suitable sites. Efforts will be made to open a cottage industry whereby the leaves are used in a more scientific and modern ways. Research will be done on the edible fruit if any thing say edible oil can be extracted.

As said in the introductory note, agriculture is a foundation of Eritrea’s economy but its productivity is so low as to make it incapable of raising rural income or of ensuring adequate food security. The root of the problem is that the rural environment, soils, rainfall, markets and infrastructure, is unfavourable to rapid growth, even accounting for the devastating effects of conflict over many years. Broad based rural development therefore requires exceptional new investment in human capital, infrastructure, land management, irrigation and water conservation; and technology generation and transfer to produce higher income and employment.

If forests of Eritrea are to increase in area or at least to remain as they are now and become economically viable, agriculture should improve tremendously in the coming two decades. Hence effort must made to increase productivity in agriculture hand in hand with soil and water conservation works. If properly studied and planned, large areas of land can be put under cultivation because out of 3.2 million hectares that are suitable for agriculture only about 500,000 hectares are being cultivated. This would minimise further clearance of forestland for agricultural purposes (World Bank, 2000).

The government should give high priority to rural development and give well considered strategy to better the lives of rural people.

The strategy recognises that the country has a structured food deficit and limited natural resources, with poverty being the dominant feature of rural lives. Economic growth is a foundation of the strategy. The approach to growth is to develop irrigation, enhance the productivity of rain-fed agriculture, the traditional systems and the new ones known generally as integrated farming system, and increase livestock and fisheries production as well as tourism. The path of these ends are a mix of intensification, higher yields per area through the use of more purchased inputs and a general rise in factor productivity on the highlands; and of extensification - a general land use per worker, the ploughing of new land and the use of more machinery in the lowlands. The strategy further recognises that growth must have an important employment effect, given the high share of the labour force involved in producing rural goods. The main stimulus to growth is better economic incentives, remunerative product prices and lower input prices through market integration and more productive infrastructure. Public interventions are in theory, limi ted to "improved access to credit, storage and marketing facilities" and to seasonal stable price stabilisation to achieve better food security.

The objectives should be to increase productivity in traditional farming and to move it towards commercial agriculture. The resulting growth would increase income, lower food consumption risks, generate raw materials for processing and generate demand for goods from other sectors. These can be done by promoting appropriate improved agricultural practices suitable to regional constraints and potentials; develop market infrastructure and information systems; develop land use plans based on land capability to minimise future land use conflicts and to promote integrated regional development; strengthen linkages of the traditional sector with commercial agriculture and processing industries, including contract farming; and encourage the amalgamation of non-viable farms into more economic units.

Expansion of rain-fed and irrigated cultivation of high potential areas, mainly in the southwest; focus on research and extension on high priority staples (sorghum, millets, wheat, barley, and taff) and on high value crops (fruits and vegetables), disseminate research results to the rural people, make optimal use of water for irrigation while respecting other water uses; promote improved cultivation techniques including modernising mechanised farming where it is appropriate and improve crop storage.

In the next two decades there will be a change in the pattern of agriculture and animal husbandry. In the case of agriculture especially in the case of crop production the tendency is towards crop diversification. Rain fed agriculture will be supplemented where irrigation is possible. There will be improvement on the production of cotton, oilseeds, dry tomatoes, watermelon, fruits like banana and oranges. Research work on floriculture has been started. Some of these are for export.

Commercial farmers grow high value crop mainly horticultural crops. The principal crops are banana, onion, papaya, tomatoes, peppers, eggplant, okra, citrus fruits and mango. Double cropping is routine. As a result of the irrigated agriculture farmers are hoped to meet domestic needs for most vegetables and fruits and can generate some for export. In the next two decades, the plan is to improve animal husbandry. One way of improving is by means of breeding and artificial insemination. The indigenous cattle is known for its resistance to various types of animal diseases, however, the milk and meat products one gets from such type of animals are relatively poor. The imported ones have good quality and quantity of milk and meat products. Research is being made to get good quality and high yield, which are at the same time disease resistant domestic animals. This type of work is going on for some time now and there is some form of improvement in the field. After suitable testing breeds are given to farmers through the provision of credit system.

In general the trend for the coming two decades will be in the increase of:

Livestock services and in the supply of inputs;

Legislation land use and farmers security will be developed through research and community participation;

Marketing, processing and infrastructure in particular there is a development of pricing structure for agriculture and animal products that favour competition.

In order to achieve these trends there are a number of strategies among which are:

Definition and delimitation of grazing land at village level to allow range development and forage conservation for the dry season with emphasis on the areas where agro-pasturalism practice is prominent;

Maximum utilisation of locally available industrial by-products including those of the abattoir and non oily fishes, which are currently wasted, for use as stock feed and establishing industrial feed mills with feed analysis and scientific ration computation;

Introduction of exotic forage development programmes in irrigated areas to produce high value animal products;

Improve dairy cattle and goat breeds starting from the local cattle such as "Barka" and "Arabo" and local goat breads such as "Husani" and "Arabo" through selection and breeding programmes that are economically viable under the local conditions in function of their ecological variances;

Increasing the production levels of dairy, poultry, small ruminants, beef and pig meat focusing on finished products of export value;

Prevention and control of enzootic and trans-boundary animal diseases and zoonoses of economic and public health services diagnosis and surveillance;

Introduction of cost recovery system such as credit and revolving fund to relieve the government from budgetary constraints and to train farmers to take over the cost of production;

Introduction of legal instruments and regulatory frame work;

Provision of training programmes to strength the quality of livestock services provided by both the public and private sectors;

Increasing the value of hides and skins by introducing improved animal health and skin and hide handling and management system.

On the policy side the activities are being restructured to support the efforts of the private sector to focus on small holders. This approach applies to all sectors of the economy. The private sector including the small holders in the villages are stimulated to assume its role in developing the sub-sector through the provision of effective livestock services and development oriented tariff and credit.

There are, however, great opportunities to develop the animal resources sub sector where investment is warranted by the positive elements favouring its development. First, animal production regardless of the species used or ecological zone variations is the most widely spread single economic activity, hence the main source of cash income, protein food and animal power in rural areas. Many households keep at least back yard poultry, and it is also important to reckon that most of the supply for the big towns is produced as backyard dairy. Second, the meat industry together with its by-products constitute an important forex earner, hence the market prospect is quite favourabe, though it is not fully exploited. Third, most part of the country may not support cropping but it can still support some species of livestock. Fourth, the domestic demand on products such as that of the dairy, poultry, and pig meat are very high and considerable amount are imported, hence it becomes essential to produce them to substitute imports in the short time possible.

Improvement of rangeland has started in the lowlands and in the coastal areas. In some areas work on the identification of superior rangeland species suitable for livestock diets has already stated. The immediate programme is:

Improve animal nutrition by allocation of grazing in accordance with national land use plan;

Develop and establish effective fodder production extension strategies for the different regions of the country;

Identify species that will persist under grazing in arid conditions and will improve livestock nutrition.

The above changes in the in pattern of agriculture and animal husbandry will not be at the cost of forestland. The growth will be harmonious with the development and conservation of forestland.

4.11.1. Farm Mechanisation

The objectives for the coming two decades are to facilitate the appropriate development of agricultural mechnisation especially those underused areas. Irrigated agriculture has more potential to expand, given its high return and good potential for mechnisation. Irrigated agriculture now covers at best 30,000 ha or less than 10% of the cropped area. Irrigated agriculture does have more potential to expand, however, and one expects it to grow at a rate exceeding that of rural population, given its high return and good potential for mechanisation. The rate of expansion of irrigation from 0 to 2 to 4 percent annually any of which over the next ten years, would not risk exhausting the national potential irrigated areas (World Bank, 2000).

4.11.2. Animal Resources

Livestock products provide some 5 % of GDP (FAO, 2000). For the coming two decades efforts will be made to raise this ratio. Animal production is nearly the only activity for the pastoral minority and is an important source of cash for agro-pastoralists. The objectives should be to promote livestock production through improved husbandry so as to increase the supply of animal nutrients, engender small and large scale processing of livestock products, and to augment the supply of draught power while at the same time preserving land resources. The traditional pastoral system must be developed by efficient and sustainable rangeland management. Animal nutrition objectives for the coming two decades will be to improve the nutritional status of herds and flocks through increased access to high quality feed and improved rangeland. It is important to promote easily acceptable technologies for the pastoralists and agro-pastoralists. In the coming two decades efforts will be made to integrate livestock, forestry, range and crop production systems.

Related animal health objectives are to improve the health of herds and flocks through preventative and curative medicine, expand livestock production through improved husbandry. Animal nutrition objectives are to improve the nutritional status of herds and flocks through increased access to high quality feed and improved rangelands.

4.11.3.Water Resources and Irrigation

The objectives of water resources and irrigation policy are to ensure sustainable use of the natural resource base and protection from over exploitation. Attaining these objectives would lead to greater production of high value crops for export and import substitution. For the coming two decades assess for the total water requirements in high priority areas; develop national, regional and priority catchment plans that integrate MOA water conservation works with other structures and institutions; establish guidelines for agricultural water use in consultation with non-agricultural users and identify areas where flood control and drainage are inadequate and develop improved solutions; and on the productivity enhancement improve small and large scale irrigation schemes, undertake a comprehensive soil and water conservation programme including the use of labour intensive techniques where appropriate, carry out cost effective yet high quality construction of dams and wells and protect catchments by permanent and temporary closures and reforestation.

4.11.4. Agricultural Prices and Trade

The policy goal is to ensure that agricultural prices are equitable for producers and consumers alike. The main goal of trade policy is to benefit from international markets in agricultural goods. Under a general policy of free trade, Eritrea will specialise in goods in which it has comparative advantage (e.g. ruminants). Quality control of products and quarantine systems will be encouraged to increase domestic goods competitiveness on world markets.

Eritrea has comparative advantages in the production of:

Agricultural crops like cotton and oil seeds, dry tomatoes which are exported to some Arab countries;

Fruits like water melon, banana and citrus which are exported to some European countries, Middle East and some Arab countries;

A variety of flowers, which are sent to some European countries, like Holland and the Middle East.

Live animals (cows, sheep, goats, and camels) are exported to some neighbouring countries, and in nowadays there a plan to produce and export chilled meat, beef in jelly, bone meal, blood meal and meat extract;

Skins and hides which are exported ;

Poultry and poultry products which are exported to Djibouti;

The export of these items is facilitated through two of its own ports along the Red Sea Coast.

4.11.5.Rural non-farm Industries

Policy seeks to develop processing and artisanry in association with agricultural development to diversify from income. This will be done by encouraging the establishment and development of rural industries through the provision of credit, common services and other resources. It will identify areas of high potential and encourage their growth through the provision of credit and other resources.

4.11.6. Plant Health

The objectives are to reduce crop losses to pests and diseases to economically acceptable levels, to minimise the spread of exotic pests and diseases and protect human health. Promote integrated pest management.