Part two: Needs for new orientation

Hybrid rice for food security: recent progress and large-scale production issues - Dat Van Tran

Executive Secretary, International Rice Commission Plant Production and Protection Division, FAO, Rome, Italy

INTRODUCTION

Hybrid rice technology needs to be made widely available to small-scale farmers. This technology emerged just 25 years ago and is relatively young when compared to hybrid maize. However, since the 1980s many countries have become increasingly aware of the importance of hybrid rice for improving food security. China's successful programme is an example for other countries to replicate. Furthermore, international and regional efforts by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) provide strong and consistent support in several countries to improve the national capacity in hybrid rice breeding, F₁ seed production and research facilities.

In the last ten years, there has been significant progress in hybrid rice development and F₁ seed production, in particular in India and Viet Nam. However, it remains of the utmost importance to promote the wide adoption of hybrid rice technologies, maintain the higher yields of commercial hybrid combinations and gain adequate political support for national programmes. Many of the lessons learnt from the implementation of hybrid rice programmes have not been well communicated to other countries. Extensive interaction among breeders, seed production specialists, extension workers, policy-makers and senior government officials, at national and regional level, is therefore required.

This paper analyses the current situation of hybrid rice in the world and highlights some major issues concerning its wide adoption outside China.

HYBRID RICE FOR FOOD SECURITY, RURAL EMPLOYMENT AND AGRICULTURAL DIVERSIFICATION

Rice is the most important staple food crop for millions of Asians. Under irrigated tropical conditions, two or three crops can be grown annually with sustainable yields to meet farmers' needs. Several Asian countries are currently net rice exporters, but in the future, increasing population, urban development and depletion of the resource base will compromise the sustainability of such intensive systems with regard to their rice-exporting position. The increase in demand for rice is expected to exceed production in many countries, including China, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Rice production in the region will therefore need to increase, while land, labour, water and chemical inputs all decrease.

Asia's rice yield growth rate dropped to 0.98 percent during the 1990s (compared to 2.34, 1.76 and 2.40 percent in the previous three decades) (Table 1). The evolution of rice yield at world level is similar to that observed in Asia but less pronounced. In recent years, stagnation of rice yield has been observed in many countries, including Indonesia, the Philippines, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, Japan and the Republic of Korea (Figures 1 and 2). The average rice yield in China, Japan and the Republic of Korea is 40 to 60 percent higher than in the rest of Asia. In addition to this, the Expert Consultation on Technological Evolution and Impact for Sustainable Rice Production in Asia and the Pacific, held in Bangkok in 1996, reported the stagnation and deceleration of rice yield in many Asian countries. The Expert Consultation on Bridging the Rice Yield Gap in the Asia-Pacific Region, which took place in Bangkok in 1999, recognized the existence of a sizeable yield gap between attainable and farm-level yields across production systems and regions in all rice-growing countries in Asia. The gap between attainable and economically exploitable yields ranges from 10 to 60 percent (RAP, 1999).

TABLE 1

Average annual growth rate of rice yield in different continents

^a Based on data in FAOSTAT, 2000.

FiGURE 1 Yield evolution in China, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand, 1975-1999

FIGURE 2 Yield evolution in IRRI-ADB project countries, 1975-1999

Increasing attention has been given to the development of a new generation of rice varieties, including hybrid rice, new plant types (super rice and NERICA - New Rice for Africa) and transgenic rices. At present, hybrid rice technology - the only tool readily available to farmers for large-scale production - has a yield advantage of 15 to 20 percent over the best conventionally-bred varieties. Successful commercial hybrid rice production in China has enabled the country to diversify agricultural production on millions of hectares of land. Although rice lands in China have steadily decreased from 36.5 million ha (Mha) in 1975 to 30.5 Mha in 2000 (0.6% per year), the country has been able to feed more than one million people and has achieved national food security thanks to the fact that the hybrid rice programme raised the national average yield from 3.5 to 6.2 t/ha (Table 2).

TABLE 2

Evolution of rice area, yield and production in China, 1975-2000

Source: FAOSTAT, 2001.

The intensive labour requirement of F₁ seed multiplication and production in the hybrid rice programme has created rural employment opportunities and increased farmers' income. Hybrid rice seed production requires about 30 percent more labour (300 man-days/ha) than hybrid rice cultivation (Virmani, 1994) and 400 to 500 man-days/ha in north Viet Nam (Quach Ngoc An, pers. comm.).

Furthermore, it is interesting to note that the hybrid rice experience in some countries has revealed better heterosis in unfavourable soil and climatic conditions than in favourable irrigated rice conditions. The Indian hybrid rice programme has focused on some unfavourable ecologies, mainly saline soils and rainfed lowlands in its northeastern region, with the aim of improving the economic return of resource-poor farmers.

Although during the last five years there has been a steady decline in the world rice price, discouraging rice growers and exporters from increasing production, hybrid rice technology is very important in the context of food security for rice-consuming countries where arable land is becoming scarce, population is steadily increasing and labour is cheap. However, hybrid rice technology is complicated and time-consuming and requires well-developed skills in breeding and F₁ seed production - all factors which limit its widespread adoption outside China. The recent progress in hybrid rice programmes in Viet Nam and India shows that this technology requires: strong commitment and support from governments and scientists; cooperation among research programmes, seed production sectors and extension delivery services; and international collaboration and coordination.

PROGRESS IN THE HYBRID RICE PROGRAMME

National level

National capacity building

Several national hybrid rice programmes have been enhanced in terms of research and development. The number of rice scientists and seed specialists working on hybrid rice has continuously grown and their skills have been improved thanks to well-conducted national and international training programmes. More contract growers and farmers have gained experience in the production of hybrid seed and cultivation of hybrid rice under the guidance of extension workers. Several national hybrid rice programmes have been established with well-defined objectives and activities with support from the respective governments. An example is the Philippine hybrid rice programme, which has full government support and currently ranks third after the Indian and Vietnamese hybrid rice programmes.

The national hybrid rice programmes in Bangladesh, Indonesia and Sri Lanka have gradually improved in terms of skilled manpower and research facilities, thanks to support from government, FAO, IRRI and China. Recently, Egypt has given high priority to its hybrid rice programme with support from FAO and USAID-IRRI-UC Davis (University of California Davis). However, it is well known that hybrid rice and hybrid seed production require enormous qualified human resources. Comprehensive training programmes are therefore required.

Institutional level

In Viet Nam, the Hybrid Rice Research Centre (HRRC), established in 1994 under the supervision of the Viet Nam Agricultural Sciences Institute (VASI), has a technical and staffing capacity to handle research and supply nucleus, breeder and foundation seed of hybrid and parental lines to the national, provincial and district hybrid rice programmes. In 2000, the staff comprised: 22 specialists (2 Ph.D., 3 M.Sc., 17 B.Sc.); 4 contract specialists (3 M.Sc., 1 B.Sc.); and 10 contract workers. The centre has 5 ha of land for experimental purposes at its headquarters and 4.5 ha in the Ba Vi area, with good isolation conditions suited to CMS line multiplication in the spring season. It also has a few F₁ seed farms (10 ha) contracted with farmers in Hai Phong and at the extension centre in Thai Binh Province in north Viet Nam. This centre received the support of the FAO project TCP/VIE/6614(T), in particular for staff training and upgrading of the hybrid rice research facilities.

Six years after its establishment, HRRC took the lead in hybrid rice research - previously dominated by other agencies, such as the Department of Agriculture and Forestry Extension, the Agricultural Genetic Institute, the University of Agriculture No. 1 and the Cuu Long Rice Research Institute. The centre is now capable of producing nucleus and breeder seed and handling genetic maintenance of parental lines; it has also developed new hybrid rice varieties. The variety YT 57 (CMS line from IRRI) with high grain quality has been widely adopted. HRRC also has a group working on F₁ seed production under a farmer's contract. This is a good practical approach but should not divert the centre's interest from hybrid rice research. Farmers are awaiting the release by the centre of other hybrid rice varieties. The IRRI-ADB project "Development and Use of Hybrid Rice in Asia" also supported the hybrid rice programme in the country, within the framework of the International Task Force for Hybrid Rice (INTAFOHR).

In India, the national hybrid rice programme has had the full support of the Government with the active participation of both the public and the private sector. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) identified hybrid rice technology as a top priority area and in December 1989 initiated a network project on hybrid rice in collaboration with IRRI. This project has been further strengthened (September 1991 to the present) with assistance from UNDP-FAO (DRR, 1996). The project's first phase was completed in 1996 and its second three-year phase began in 2000. Its research network comprises two lead centres - Kapurthala in Punjab State for north India and Mandya in Karnataka State for south India - plus 10 other research institutes and centres.

Strong extension support, improved grain quality to satisfy different local tastes and reduced F₁ seed production costs will give further impetus to the Indian hybrid rice programme.

In the Philippines, the PhilRice Hybrid Rice Center, based in San Mateo, Isabella is devoted entirely to hybrid rice research and development programmes.

Adoption of hybrid rice

In Viet Nam, farmers grew hybrid rice on 11 000 ha in 1992, 102 000 ha in 1996 and 340 000 ha in 2000 - almost 70 percent of the set goal. The country aims to grow 1 Mha of hybrid rice in north and central Viet Nam, where arable land is very limited (Nguyen, 1997). With the rapid increase in the hybrid rice area increased rapidly, local F₁ seed multiplication became insufficient to meet farmers' demands. At present, the country meets only 10 percent of the demand for F₁ seed; the set target is 60 percent by 2005. Viet Nam therefore has to import large quantities of hybrid seed and parental lines from the southern provinces of China. It is believed that with the Government's commitment and the appropriate organization of a rational seed multiplication programme, self-sufficiency in F₁ seed production will soon be achieved.

In India, during the 1995/96 dry season, 1 300 tonnes of F₁ seed were produced, of which 91 percent were produced by the public sector. During 1997, it was estimated that about 3 000 tonnes of hybrid seed were produced by the public and private sectors, sufficient for the cultivation of about 125 000 ha (Ahmed, 1997). In 2000, hybrid rice was grown on between 150 000 and 200 000 ha, i.e. about 10 percent of the targeted 2 Mha (Ikehashi, 2000).

International and regional support

FAO 's hybrid rice programme

In compliance with the International Rice Commission's recommendations, FAO has given priority to the large-scale adoption of hybrid rice outside China. In the last 10 years, it has provided support to various national rice programmes in the world. The activities are listed in Table 3.

The major objectives of these FAO-supported projects are:

• to assist interested member countries in strengthening national capacity in hybrid rice breeding, F₁ seed multiplication and production;

• to improve the facilities for supporting the hybrid rice programme; and

• to assist in formulating a medium-term hybrid rice development programme.

IRRI-ADB-funded project

The project "Development and Use of Hybrid Rice in Asia", funded by ADB and coordinated by IRRI, was initiated in March 1998 under the framework of INTAFOHR. The project's objective is to expedite the development and use of hybrid rice in Asia. During phase 1 its activities were implemented by six countries (Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam). The collaborating agencies include IRRI, FAO and the Asia and Pacific Seed Association (APSA). The project has greatly helped to disseminate hybrid rice technology in the region.

Major technological progress

F₁ seed production

Seed yield of hybrid rice has progressively increased in China, India and Viet Nam (Table 4). In China, F₁ seed yield increased from 410 kg/ha in 1976 to 669 kg/ha in 1981, 2 252 kg/ha in 1991 and 2 500 kg/ha in 1995 (Yuan, 1998). At the same time, Viet Nam produced 320 kg/ha of F₁ seed in 1992, 1 751 kg/ha in 1996 and 2 200 kg/ha in 1998 (MARD, 1999). In India, during the 1995/96 dry season, F₁ seed yields varied from 1 072 to 1 925 kg/ha (DRR, 1996). Other countries lack experience in hybrid rice seed production and have lower F₁ seed yields of around 1 000 kg/ha. High F₁ seed yields are important for reducing seed production costs.

TABLE 3

FAO support to national hybrid rice programmes in the last decade, beside its regular programmes

TABLE 4

Seed yield in China, India and Viet Nam, 1976-2000 (kg/ha)

Sources:
^a Yuan, 1998.
^b DRR, 1996.
^c MARD, 1999.

CMS lines

Several hundred CMS lines and hybrid combinations have been developed by IRRI and national research institutes for different agro-ecologies, with acceptable grain quality (including Basmati), resistance to major insect pests and diseases and tolerance to adverse soils and water stresses. It is believed that the number of CMS lines and hybrid combinations will increase exponentially in the near future, due to the greater number of experienced hybrid rice specialists. However, low and inconsistent seed yields in hybrid production fields are still observed.

Two-line hybrids

Research on two-line hybrids has made significant advances in China, IRRI and other NARS (national agricultural research systems). This technology serves to boost the adoption of hybrid rice as it has a yield advantage of 5 to 10 percent over the commercially cultivated three-line hybrid varieties. In the two-line system, there is no need for maintainer lines. The field area ratio between CMS line multiplication, hybrid seed production and commercial production of two-line hybrids is therefore much higher than for three-line hybrid varieties (1:100:15 000 for two-line varieties compared to 1:50:6 000 for three-line hybrids). Consequently, this technology will lower the cost of F₁ seed production (Yuan, 1996). However, more time is required to perfect the two-line hybrid rice technology before introducing it to farmers outside China.

MAJOR AREAS OF CONCERN FOR FUTURE HYBRID RICE PROGRAMMES

The greatest area of concern for the hybrid rice programme is the long-term maintenance of genetic purity of F₁ seed and parental lines: A, B and R lines. Recent reports have indicated that the purity of these lines is deteriorating in some countries, thus affecting the heterotic characteristics and the yield advantage of rice hybrids. According to Mao (1988) and Yin (1997), each percentage past of genetic impurity in F₁ seed may reduce paddy yield by approximately 100 kg/ha. Genetic impurity of parental lines of hybrid rice has recently been reported in India (Ikehashi, 2000), Indonesia (Krishnaiah, 2001; Viraktamath, 2001) and the Philippines (Pan, 2000). Dr C.X. Mao (IRRI) on 11 March 2001 addressed the Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP, FAO) and said that:

Most of the parental lines of hybrid rice in tropical countries, such as Indonesia, Sri Lanka and the Philippines, are facing the serious problem of genetic purity, which may kill the hybrid rice programme in these countries in the near future.

Likewise, Dr Viraktamath, Rice Breeder at the Directorate of Rice Research (DRR) in Hyderabad, in his FAO mission to Indonesia (Feb. - April 2001), reported that:

The major problem at present is the purity of parental lines and the hybrids. Unless this problem is tackled on warfooting, prospects for hybrid rice are rather bleak.

These alarming statements should be taken seriously by national and international hybrid rice programmes, as the yield advantage of hybrid rice will continue to decrease drastically if no appropriate and timely action is taken to maintain genetic purity of parental lines and F₁ seeds.

Historically, failure to maintain genetic purity in the parental lines received from China, IRRI and other NARS, had a negative effect on a number of hybrid rice programmes and discouraged scientists and governments in India, Indonesia, the Philippines and Viet Nam in the 1980s and early 1990s. In his report (4 August 1990) for an FAO mission to Indonesia, Dr H. Ikehashi stated:

At this stage, it was found that the new series of CMS lines were unstable, giving a remarkable mixture of selfed CMS plants which were carried over to yield trials, lowering the yield level.

This was supported by field observation (Table 5). The phenomenon of genetic impurity of parental lines appeared in Viet Nam in the early 1990s, in particular in south Viet Nam (Tran, 1996). As the problem was recognized at an early stage in north Viet Nam, Chinese experts were called in to help improve the national capacity for the maintenance of genetic purity. The problem is currently kept in check by HRRC and a number of seed companies. In India, the problem is not serious since hybrid rice specialists are able to maintain the purity of parental lines. However, in his mission to India in 2000, Dr Ikehashi reported that mixtures still occur in parental lines (Ikehashi, 2000).

TABLE 5

Heterosis in the hybrid rice combinations in Indonesia, 1983/84 to 1986/87

Source: Ikehashi, 1990

The purification of parental lines is a fundamental process for obtaining good hybrid rice seed, and it is the most important step in determining the success or failure of a national hybrid rice programme. Mao (1988) recommended the following activities to ensure the quality of F₁ hybrid seed:

• purification of parental lines;

• strict isolation;

• thorough rogueing;

• field sanitation and quarantine;

• strict adherence to procedures to avoid mechanical admixture; and

• regular purity tests (field, laboratory, nursery test and isozyme test).

Aggressive training programmes and the dissemination of information concerning techniques for purification and maintenance of parental lines should be urgently conducted by IARC (International Agricultural Research Centre), NARS and international agencies to ensure good heterosis and avoid the latent negative trend in the application of hybrid rice technology.

OTHER ISSUES RELATED TO LARGE-SCALE HYBRID RICE PRODUCTION

Heterosis

The promotion of large-scale hybrid rice production will be facilitated by the introduction of high heterotic combinations of parental lines of hybrid rice. Considerable progress has been achieved in all areas of hybrid development except heterosis. The present intervarietal hybrids, within indica cultivars, only outyield commercial rice by 15 to 20 percent. The scarcity of maintainer lines is a major problem in hybrid rice breeding. The most promising area is the deployment of inter-subspecific hybrids, especially indica/japonica crosses. China, India and IRRI have exerted major efforts in this area. Ikehashi (2000), in his mission to India, suggested that the heterosis of rice hybrids could be improved by the following means:

• use of wide compatibility genes (S-5ⁿ);

• development of the genetic basis of maintainers using javanica or japonica-like materials;

• expansion of the basis for restorers using partial restorers (hybrid sterility genes can be recombined towards accumulation of neutral alleles, i.e. wide compatibility genes);

• intensifying test crossing for higher level heterosis; and

• selection of traits for high outcrossing rate in composite crosses (e.g. O. longistaminata).

High and consistent productivity

In the field, the yield of rice hybrids and F₁ seeds has been inconsistent over time and space due to technology and crop management. Insect and disease resistance should be incorporated into parental lines. A complete package of hybrid technology needs to be developed and tested for specific locations. Suitable locations for hybrid rice seed and hybrid rice production must be identified for each country.

Lower costs of F₁ seed production

Recently, the cost of hybrid rice seeds has been five to six times higher than normal. Increasing hybrid seed yield and supporting seed costs would encourage farmers to adopt hybrid rice on a large scale. Chinese rice specialists have spent 20 years improving skills in F₁ seed production, resulting in an increase in F₁ seed yield from 0.3 to 2.25 t/ha. This enables them to cut the cost of seed production from US$5.96 to 0.79 per kg (Table 6) (Mao et al., 1998). Other countries reach yields of no more than 1 to 1.5 t/ha and seed costs vary from US$1.5 to 2.5 per kg. Seed costs may be halved if the technical gap between China and other countries is significantly narrowed and the present seed yield doubled.

TABLE 6

Hybrid rice seed yield and cost changes in China, 1975-1995

Grain quality

Grain quality is a major factor limiting the adoption of hybrid rice. Although grain quality of hybrid rice has improved in China, India and Viet Nam, greater efforts are still needed in this area - the economic condition in the region is improving and consumers become increasingly demanding, in particular in India. The lower price of hybrid rice will leverage the yield advantage of hybrids.

Large-scale seed production

Large quantities of hybrid seed are required to support large-scale production. Scarcity of skilled manpower and complicated technologies have, however, hampered efforts in some countries. For this reason, coordination between research, seed production and extension, and policy support for the national hybrid rice programme are essential requirements for large-scale seed production.

Government commitment

One lesson learnt during the Green Revolution is that development and dissemination of technologies require a conducive institutional and policy environment. Government support is essential to initiate and develop hybrid rice programmes and to promote effective coordination and intervention to solve problems arising.

In Indonesia, the national rice yield increased considerably by 4.9 percent per year during 1967-1977 and by 4.3 percent during 1977-1987, enabling the country to attain self-sufficiency in rice production. Indonesia benefited from the Green Revolution from 1977 to 1987 and the Government's INSUS/SUPRA rice intensification programmes have been implemented since 1975. A successful integrated pest management programme has also contributed to the high yields (Dudung, 1990).

Bangladesh reached self-sufficiency in the mid 1990s because of favourable policies concerning the development and use of groundwater in boro rice production.

Viet Nam went from a rice-importing to a rice-exporting country in the late 1980s, thanks to the adoption of appropriate policies. In 2000, the country exported 4.6 Mt of milled rice and ranked second in the international rice market after Thailand.

In Egypt, rice yield increased from 5.8 t/ha in 1987 to 8.5 t/ha in 1997, one of the highest yields in the world. This coincided with the adoption of new high-yielding varieties (e.g. Giza 175, 176, 181, 177 and 178, and Sakha 101 and 102). Intensive demonstrations and training in crop management, and monitoring of production constraints carried out under national coordinated programmes, such as Markbouk 4 (Badawi, 1998), have led to the increase in national rice yield.

Commitment and support from senior government officers, policy-makers, senior research managers and scientists is essential to promote national hybrid rice research and development programmes and for wide adoption of this new technology. The main policy areas are described below (Costales, 1999).

Technology development

• Government policy for the development of hybrid rice technology within the food security framework;

• Allocation of significant public research and development resources for the development of hybrid rice technology;

• Research and development efforts and resources focused on meeting specifications and preferences of ultimate users of hybrid rice technology; and

• Seeking international funding to support physical infrastructure requirements for national hybrid rice programmes.

Seed production, processing and distribution

• Liberalization of the seed industry in order to create a competitive seed market environment;

• Sharing with the private sector the risks and costs of seed production;

• Adoption of a seed quality control policy of "truthful labelling" rather than mandatory registration, seed testing and seed certification;

• Pricing hybrid seed in accordance with competitive market prices, coupled with government subsidies to help introduce the technology to farmers;

• A clearly-defined government policy on the temporary role of the public sector in seed production, processing and distribution.

LESSONS LEARNT

It is worth reiterating the main lessons discussed in the Workshop on Progress in the Development and Use of Hybrid Rice outside China, held in Hanoi from 28 to 30 May 1997:

1. Strong government commitment and support to the hybrid rice programme, in terms of manpower, resources, coordination and monitoring. A functional national steering committee is crucial to coordinate research, seed production, extension and other related issues.

2. Preparation of a national medium-term hybrid rice programme with clear, specific and achievable goals, objectives, strategies and plan of action.

3. Establishment of appropriate research and seed multiplication on a full-time basis at each research network center.

4. Active participation of seed production agencies, private sector, NGOs and international agencies.

5. Active participation of the provisional, district and local extension agencies to promote farmers' wide adoption.

6. Development of an effective network of research, F₁ seed production systems, extension services and other agencies involved with clearly-defined role and reponsiblities, with the coordination of the Steering Committee (Figure 3).

7. Free exchange of germplasm and technologies related to hybrid rice.

8. Intensive training programme for hybrid breeding and F₁ seed production for staff and farmers. A large number of seed production personnel in the public and private sector and progressive farmers should be trained in the various aspects of hybrid seed production.

9. The need to establish pilot regions, provinces and areas where concerted efforts can be made for the wide adoption of hybrid rice.

FIGURE 3: Network of hybrid rice production

CONCLUSION

Hybrid rice technology has provided farmers with high yields, saved land for agricultural diversification and created rural employment opportunities. Although the technology is still new, many rice-producing countries have expressed their interest in its application to improve food security. Government commitment and support are fundamental for initiating hybrid rice programmes and promoting rapid large-scale adoption. There is, however, scope for further improvement: higher heterosis, early maturity, better grain quality and reduced costs of seed production. The second generation of hybrid rice, or super hybrid rice, developed by China, together with the two-line hybrid system, should give further impetus to farmers' adoption of hybrid rice technology in the near future.

REFERENCES

Ahmed, M.I. 1997. Development and use of hybrid rice technology: Lessons learnt from the Indian experience. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Progress in the Development and Use of Hybrid Rice Outside China, Hanoi, Viet Nam, 28-30 May 1997. 178 pp.

Badawi, A.T. 1998. Sustainability of rice production in Egypt. In Proceedings of the 19th Session of the International Rice Commission, Cairo, Egypt, 7-9 Sept. 1998. p. 45-50. Rome, FAO.

Costales, A.C. 1999. Policy and institutional constraints to the development and use of hybrid rice technology in member countries of the IRRI/ADB hybrid rice project. Paper presented at the Regional Meeting on Seed Policy and Programmes for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand, 2-6 May 1999.

DRR (Directorate of Rice Research). 1996. Final Report 1991-96. ICAR/UNDP/FAO Project on Development and Use of Hybrid Rice Technology (IND/91/008). 87 pp.

Dudung, A.A. 1990. Modernizing rice farming: Indonesia's experience in conducting the green revolution. In Proceedings of the 17th Session of the International Rice Commission, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil, 4-9 Feb. 1990. p. 265-274.

FAO. 2001. FAOSTAT 2001. Rome.

Ikehashi, H. 1990. Mission Report. FAO Mission on Review of Hybrid Rice Programme in Indonesia, July-Aug. 1990. Rome, FAO. 12 pp.

Ikehashi, H. 2000. Consultancy Mission Report. Project on Development and Large-Scale Adoption of Hybrid Rice Technology (UNDP/FAO/IND/98/140). Mission 28 Aug. - 16 Sept. 2000. Rome, FAO. 19 pp.

Krishnaiah, K. 2001. Mission Report. Project on Strengthening the Development and Use of Hybrid Rice in Indonesia (TCP/INS/8921). Mission 24 Feb. - 10 March 2001. Rome, FAO. 40 pp.

Mao, C.X. 1988. Hybrid rice seed production in China. In Seed health. p. 177-282. Philippines, IRRI.

Mao, C.X., Virmani, S.S. & Kumar, I. 1998. Technological innovations to lower the costs of hybrid rice seed production. In S.S. Virmani, E.A. Siddiq & K. Muralidharan, eds. Advances in hybrid rice technology. p.111-128. Philippines, IRRI.

MARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development). 1999. Report on agricultural production in 1999. Ha Noi. 15 pp.

Nguyen, C.T. 1997. Opening address delivered at the Workshop on Progress in the Development and Use of Hybrid Rice Outside China, Ha Noi, Viet Nam, 28-30 May 1997. p. 10-11. Ha Noi, MARD.

Pan, X.G. 2000. Mission Report. Project on Strengthening National Capacity for Hybrid Rice Development and Use in the Philippines (TCP/PHI/8821). Mission 15 Sept. - 28 Oct. 2000. Rome, FAO. 27 pp.

RAP (Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific). 1999. Report of the Expert Consultation on Bridging the Rice Yield in the Asia-Pacific Region, Bangkok, 1999. 20 pp.

Tran, D.V. 1996. Mission Report on Backstopping and Reviewing of the National Hybrid Rice Programme under the Framework of Project TCP/VIE/6614(T). Mission 24 July - 7 Aug. 1996. Rome, FAO. 11 pp.

Viraktamath, B.C. 2001. Mission Report on Strengthening the Development and Use of Hybrid Rice in Indonesia. Mission 24 Feb. - 24 April 2001. Rome, FAO. 42 pp.

Virmani, S.S. 1994. Heterosis and hybrid rice breeding. Philippines, IRRI. 189 pp.

Yin H.Q. 1997. Strategies and procedures used for nucleus, breeder and foundation seed production. In Proceeding of the Workshop on Progress in the Development and Use of Hybrid Rice Outside China, Ha Noi, Viet Nam, 28-30 May 1997. p. 52-58. Ha Noi, MARD.

Yuan, L.P. 1996. Hybrid Rice in China. In Hybrid rice technology. p. 51-54. Hyderabad, India, DRR.

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Orientation of research programme for supporting a rapid adoption of hybrid rice technology on a large scale - Sant S. Virmani

Plant Breeder cum Deputy Head, Plant Breeding, Genetics and Biochemistry Division IRRI, Los Baños, Philippines

INTRODUCTION

In order to increase national productivity and farmers' incomes, large-scale adoption of agricultural technology is essential. Outside China, a number of countries are involved in the promotion of hybrid rice technology to achieve this goal. The success of hybrid rice development and adoption in China is attributed to:

• full government support of research, seed production and extension;

• the strong nationwide hybrid rice research network committed to the development of hybrid rice technology from the very beginning;

• the close collaboration and healthy competition between national and provincial hybrid rice research team members;

• the development of good hybrids and agronomic packages suitable for the various ecogeographic regions of the country;

• effective coordination between research institutes and seed production agencies;

• extensive on-farm demonstrations and the large-scale public awareness campaign by extension agencies, showing the advantages of rice hybrids over inbred HYV checks;

• strong leadership at different levels of agricultural administration to coordinate research, seed production and extension activities; and

• the establishment of a rewards and recognition mechanism for outstanding researchers, seed producers and extension workers involved in the hybrid rice programme (Yuan, 1993; C.X. Mao, pers. comm.).

Other countries are lagging far behind in the large-scale adoption of this technology. Major constraints are experienced, both technical and non, including (Virmani, 2001):

• the very high expectations of farmers;

• the use of farm-saved seeds;

• the inconsistent performance and poor quality of the first set of released rice hybrids (with a few exceptions);

• the low level of disease/insect resistance in the first hybrids released;

• inadequate understanding of the agronomic management of hybrids;

• poor supply of pure seeds of parental lines and hybrids;

• inconsistent seed yields;

• the high cost of hybrid seed;

• inadequate linkage between research and seed production agencies; and

• inadequate coordination among research, seed production and technology transfer agencies for the promotion of hybrid rice technology.

In order to make an impact at farm level, a successful technology transfer programme must always be supported by an active and successful technology generation programme. This paper describes the orientation of a research programme to support the rapid adoption of hybrid rice technology on a large scale in countries outside China.

COMPARISON BETWEEN CHINA AND OTHER COUNTRIES

IRRI's experience over the past two decades in the development and dissemination of hybrid rice technology in countries outside China has led to the identification of striking differences. While the overall score of China is 1 (outstanding), other countries score between 2.8 and 5.0 (Table 1). Hybrid rice research programmes in countries aiming for the rapid adoption of the technology therefore need to re-orient their seed production research and extension programmes for hybrid rice.

TABLE 1

Comparison of China and other countries with regards to the elements for rapid and large scale adoption of hybrid rice technology

^a Scores: 1 = excellent; 2 = very good; 3 = good; 4 = fair; 5 = poor.

PROPOSED ORIENTATION OF THE HYBRID RICE RESEARCH PROGRAMME

To establish a strong and effective hybrid rice research programme aimed at the rapid adoption of the technology, the following factors must be considered:

• Hybrid rice breeders should work full-time (not part-time) and focus on the identification and development of:

  - locally adapted and stable CMS and maintainer lines possessing good outcrossing (over 30%) and acceptable grain quality;

  - locally adapted restorer lines possessing consistently high restoration ability, acceptable grain quality and resistance to major diseases and insects found in the target area(s) for adoption of rice hybrids; in order to have continuous access to such lines the breeder should establish close links with the local inbred breeding programme and follow the prescribed procedures (Virmani et al., 1997); and

  - elite hybrids, possessing at least 1 t/ha yield advantage over the best available inbred check, acceptable grain quality and desired disease/insect resistance.

• The hybrid rice breeder should work in close collaboration with research agronomists in order to develop agronomic management guidelines for maximizing the yield of elite hybrids in comparison with inbred checks. Research agronomists should work closely with extension agronomists to test and demonstrate the package of practices giving maximum output from the rice hybrids vis-à-vis inbred high-yielding varieties in the farmers' fields.

• The breeder needs adequate human and infrastructural resources to produce the required quantity and quality of nucleus and breeder seeds of elite parental lines as well as F₁ seed of heterotic hybrids for the evaluation of yield potential compared with inbred checks. The programme should be able to produce a large number (at least 500) of new experimental hybrid combinations for evaluation in observation yield trials (OYT), followed by preliminary yield trials (PYT, 30-50 entries) and multilocation yield trials (3-5 entries) every season. Seeds for OYT and PYT can be produced conveniently using the methods described by Virmani et al. (1997).

• Prior to the release of an elite hybrid, its grain quality should be critically evaluated for physical, chemical, cooking and palatability characteristics in comparison with the leading inbred check variety of the target area. The released hybrid must not only be high yielding, but comparable with the inbred check for grain quality, so that farmers do not get a lower price for the hybrid crop.

• The hybrid rice breeding programme should be closely coordinated with rice pathologists and entomologists for the selection of elite hybrids possessing the required disease/insect resistance as well as higher yield. Multilocation yield testing and on-farm testing of the elite hybrids should be done in the target areas strategically identified for the promotion of hybrid rice cultivation.

• The breeder should work closely with a seed production expert to develop the hybrid seed production technology and produce large quantities of seeds of elite hybrids for multilocation yield trials and agronomic trials. Guidelines for hybrid seed production are given in the hybrid seed production manual (Virmani and Sharma, 1993).

• Seed production technology for an elite hybrid should be developed before its release while it is still being evaluated in multilocation and on-farm trials. This technology should be passed on to the prospective seed production agencies at the time of release of the hybrid for commercial cultivation by providing the parental line seeds.

• Hybrid rice seed production technology for elite hybrids should be tested by the seed production agencies interested in commercial seed production on a multilocation basis to identify the most appropriate geographical areas for seed production.

• Hybrid rice researchers should allocate sufficient time for training the seed production and extension specialists in hybrid seed production and hybrid cultivation methods. Once there is a sufficient number of trainers, they should work in the training programmes organized by the seed industries and technology transfer agencies.

By orienting research programmes as described above, national programmes can develop the appropriate hybrid rice technology for rapid adoption on a large scale. However, it should be recognized that the generation of the technology alone does not automatically lead to its rapid adoption on a large scale without the associated supports described below.

SUPPORT REQUIRED TO PROMOTE HYBRID RICE TECHNOLOGY

Once generated, hybrid rice technology can be widely adopted if arrangements are made for the following support systems:

• Full government and policy support to the national hybrid rice research, seed production and technology transfer programmes.

• Designation of a national coordinator with the knowledge, capability, responsibility and authority to coordinate research, seed production and technology transfer programmes on hybrid rice.

• Clear deployment strategies for introducing the technology in appropriately identified target areas for hybrid rice cultivation and seed production.

• Availability of an agronomic package of practices with seeds designed to help farmers obtain maximum output from hybrid rice.

• Comprehensive frontline-demonstration and awareness-raising programmes in public, private and NGO sectors to show the advantages of hybrid rice technology to farmers and create a demand for hybrid rice seeds.

• Availability of the required quantity and quality of seeds of public and private hybrids released for commercial cultivation, and mobilization of public, private and NGO-based seed companies to provide and market seeds. An economically viable seed production technology should be developed by the seed industry and arrangements made to transfer this technology to prospective seed growers working in contractual arrangement with the seed industry.

• Extensive training support provided to farmers by public and private agencies to help them realize the full potential of their rice hybrids.

• Financial incentives to seed industries (in the form of tax concessions and input subsidies) and farmers (in the form of price support for products) to reduce risks during the initial stage (3-5 years) of adoption of the technology.

• Institutionalization of a reward and recognition mechanism to encourage outstanding research, seed production and extension personnel working on hybrid rice.

CONCLUSION

Hybrid rice technology has clearly demonstrated its potential to increase rice production both in China and outside China. However, its rapid adoption in countries outside China is affected by several technical and non-technical constraints related to technology generation, seed production and technology transfer. All these constraints can be tackled, provided adequate research programmes, supported by seed production and technology transfer programmes and sponsored by the public, private and NGO sectors, are organized and facilitated by national governments.

REFERENCES

Virmani, S.S. 2001. Opportunities and challenges of developing and using hybrid rice technology in the tropics. Proceedings of International Rice Research Conference. Metro Manila, Philippines, IRRI. (in press)

Virmani, S.S. & Sharma, H.L. 1993. Manual for hybrid rice seed production. Manila, Philippines, IRRI. 57 pp. (also available at www. cgiar.org/irri/hybrid).

Virmani, S.S., Viraktamath, B.C., Casal, C.L., Toledo, R.S., Lopez, M.T. & Manalo, J.O. 1997. Hybrid rice breeding manual. Manila, Philippines, IRRI. 151 pp.

Yuan, L.P. 1993. China's Experience in the Development of Hybrid Rice Research Programme. In B.R. Barwale, ed. Hybrid rice: food security in India. p. 22-27. India, MacMillan India Ltd.

Needs of hybrid rice seed industry for supporting large-scale cultivation - Noel G. Mamicpic

Director, the Asia and Pacific Seed Association (APSA), Bangkok, Thailand

INTRODUCTION

Rice is the major staple food and most important crop in the member countries of the ADB-funded IRRI-coordinated hybrid rice project in Asia. Despite the success in maintaining favourable food balance in the last three decades, significant advances in rice production technology are still required to provide food security in Asia and the project member countries in the 21^st century.

On the basis of the estimated growth rate of the population, per caput income and urbanization, the projected increase in demand for rice in member countries is about 68 million tonnes (Mt) from 1993 to 2020, which in relative terms is an increase of approximately 46 percent.

In the last two decades, increase in the rice production of member countries has been achieved through improvements in yield. However, these increases slowed down during the 1990s (with the exception of Viet Nam). The projected net surplus of production over demand for rice in member countries is 0.49 and 2.6 Mt in 2010 and 2020, respectively, but for three countries (Bangladesh, Indonesia and Philippines) deficits are forecast for both years. Only India and Viet Nam have potential exportable surplus, but overall the international rice market will remain thin. The situation described is a precarious and volatile source of food insecurity for chronically deficit countries.

The remarkable and well-documented experience of China in hybrid rice development and use demonstrates how the technology can be exploited to achieve self-sufficiency in rice and feed more than a billion people. The technology also offers a potentially viable option for increasing rice yields in the tropics, especially in countries with a high labour-land ratio and a high proportion of irrigated crop land (as in the project member countries).

CONSTRAINTS TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF HYBRID RICE

The member countries are at various stages of advancement in the development and use of the technology. Consequently, the constraints faced by the more advanced countries are different from those faced by countries in the early stages. The relative positions of the countries are ranked as follows:

1. India
2. Viet Nam
3. Philippines
4. Bangladesh
5. Indonesia
6. Sri Lanka

In the first three, a hybrid rice market already exists. The other three still need to develop their own hybrids for commercial release, although Bangladesh sells introduced hybrids.

Technology generation constraints

• The "eating quality problem" of the current generation of commercial hybrids.

• Lack of agronomic studies on hybrid rice cultivation.

• Shortage of highly trained scientists; inadequate facilities and equipment for research and development.

• Slow release of commercially acceptable hybrids due to insufficient efforts in research and development.

• Lack of public policy and budgetary support.

Seed production constraints

• Need to perfect the various techniques for increasing efficiency and yield of F₁ seed production across locations and seasons.

• Lack of organized and trained seed production groups; insignificant private sector activity.

• Lack of facilities and equipment for parental line purification and multiplication.

• Weak linkage between public research agency and private seed production company.

Commercialization and usage constraints

• Low profitability due to high cost of hybrid seed and low price of output.

• High price of hybrid seed due to high cost of F₁ seed production and low yield.

• Lack of promotion and extension activities in hybrid rice cultivation.

Although the type, degree and character of the constraints to the development and use of hybrid rice are country-specific, the following recurring themes may be identified:

• Slow and inadequate investment.

• Slow progress in breeding of commercially usable parental lines during the initial stages.

• Limited yield heterosis in commercial hybrids.

• Low and inconsistent seed yields in hybrid seed production.

• Inadequate human resources in terms of number and quality of personnel available in NARS (national agricultural research systems) for hybrid rice research and seed production.

• Lack of collaboration among national rice research and development programmes.

• Inadequate and ineffective seed production infrastructure in NARS.

• Lack of effective coordination between hybrid rice research and seed production systems.

• Inadequate incentives for establishment or expansion of private seed industry.

INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY CONSTRAINTS

Special policies are required in order to develop the technology and commercialize hybrid rice. It is possible to accelerate the adoption of the technology even before the country has the institutional capacity to generate its own commercially viable rice hybrids - if, that is, the appropriate policies are adopted, such as PVP and importation of hybrid seed for trade and domestic utilization.

Technology development

Where the development of hybrid rice technology is not yet high priority, a national policy may be elaborated within the framework of the national food security policy, on the basis that the expected social net returns on investment in the technology are relatively high. This policy should be formulated with the corresponding creation and organization of a goal-oriented and time-bound hybrid rice research and development programme.

Public funding

The real test of national commitment to a hybrid rice research and development programme are the financial resources allocated for the recruitment of a sufficient number of hybrid rice scientists, the provision of essential material resources, and the establishment and maintenance of facilities.

Meeting user specifications

As hybrid rice is a new technology in tropical rice production in Asia, there are still incongruences among research and development outputs (parental lines and hybrids), seed producers' specifications, rice farmers' specifications and consumer preferences. Greater resources and breeding efforts must be directed at overcoming the following specific problems:

• stable yield advantage of hybrids over best inbreds;

• stable resistance to major pests and diseases; and

• grain milling and eating quality.

International funding

There are minimum requirements in terms of physical infrastructure (laboratory and field facilities and equipment) for the establishment of a national hybrid rice centre and organization of a national research and development network. Obtaining funds for new capital is quite difficult in developing countries and here lies the important role of technical assistance from donor agencies. When these agencies require national counterpart funds, government authorities must comply and expedite the allocation and release of funds as a matter of national urgency.

Seed production, processing and distribution

This is the vital link between technology generation and actual use of the technology. A system that undertakes this function is efficient if the preferences (seed quality and promptness of delivery) of farmers are met, and the suppliers of the technology (seed producers) receive acceptable returns for all services rendered. In a competitive market for hybrid seeds, trading at market prices reflects a socially efficient system. An industrial policy is required to open and liberalize the seed industry and create the environment of a competitive market. In a competitive market, it is in the interests of the seed producer to meet farmer specifications, maintain a reputation for quality, maintain the loyalty of customers and maintain (or expand) market coverage.

The industrial policy towards the hybrid seed industry must actively and vigorously promote increased participation in hybrid rice seed production and distribution. Seed laws should promote keener competition among seed firms, both national and multinational.

Public policies and programmes are necessary for sharing the risks and costs of seed production with the private sector in the early stage of the technology. In the long term, the economic viability of hybrid rice seed production will determine private sector participation. And economic viability depends on reduced per unit cost of production of F₁ seeds. This requires dedication and precision in seed production techniques.

"Truthful Labelling" policy

Seed industry regulation is an area where government policy can have a positive or negative effect on hybrid seed production. Where regulation is mandatory by law, the public sector takes on much of the responsibility. In most developing countries where funding is a constraint, the physical and human resources required are not available to fully apply the law. The law becomes both ineffective and a barrier to the rapid development of the seed industry. Where the seed industry is vibrant, seed firms know that their single greatest asset is their reputation; failure to look after the quality of their products would have disastrous consequences. Mandatory certification then becomes redundant as seed producers voluntarily assume the cost of and responsibility for ensuring the quality of their products.

Member countries should seriously consider giving greater responsibility for certification to private seed producers, as long as:

• the seed industry is sufficiently competitive to provide real options for farmers; and

• there is a mechanism to assure seed companies that their products can be clearly identified and protected from unlawful imitations.

In member countries where the private seed industry is still emerging, industrial policy can be geared towards opening up the domestic seed industry to greater competition. National laws should have clear and distinct provisions protecting the trademark of individual seed producers or companies. Rules and procedures should be established by which customers can pursue claims against untruthfully labelled seeds. Where government supervision of seed registration and seed testing is required, more flexible and cost-effective procedures and standards are nevertheless preferable to very rigid procedures and strict standards that are impossible to implement.

Pricing policy of commercial hybrid rice seed

Pricing of hybrid rice seed is a contentious issue, especially when governments make an explicit policy of making quality seeds available to farmers at "affordable prices". In member countries where seed companies and seed producers are still new to the technology and learning how to achieve higher F₁ yields, a price control policy on F₁ seeds would definitely send a negative message. Price control policies should be excluded from the options related to "making hybrid seeds affordable" to farmers. Rather, government should be ready to provide subsidies to farmers in order to encourage them to adopt the technology.

A policy of public support to private seed companies in order to rapidly reduce the unit cost of production of F₁ seeds has greater potential benefits than imposing a price ceiling on F₁ seeds sold in the market. Such supportive policies include:

• providing parental lines free of charge;

• cost sharing with the public sector for multiplication and purification of parental lines;

• allowing local seed companies to establish joint ventures with foreign companies currently involved in hybrid rice and to have access to their own materials; and

• joint research with the public sector aimed at reducing the cost of seed production.

The temporary role of the public sector in seed production, processing and distribution

There should be a clearly-defined policy on the temporary role of the public sector in hybrid rice seed production and distribution with a clear policy commitment to leave the function to the private sector in the medium term. As a matter of general policy, seed production and distribution should be explicitly vested in private entities.

Where the private sector is still emerging, the public sector is expected to play a greater part in delivering the services out of necessity and expediency. In so doing, a public company may be requested to deliver the service but must be required to function as if it were an autonomous private company, accountable for its own profit and survival, and responsible for its clients. Public production and distribution agencies also play an important role with hybrid rice adopters who are beyond the reach of private seed entities (because a profit cannot be made from serving them). Nevertheless, the social costs of delivering the services should not be more than the social benefits and the quality of seed and service should not be compromised to the detriment of the final users of the technology.

Property rights policy

The private sector is only tempted to invest in the technology if there is an acceptable rate of net returns on their private investments. A form of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), such as Plant Variety Protection (PVP), would provide protection and give greater incentives to private investors to develop new varieties and hybrids and the corresponding technologies. With PVP laws, in a global trading environment, countries can gain access to improved germplasm and seed technologies in foreign countries. For some private companies, PVP is a more vital form of government assistance than mere research and development subsidies. For member countries, it might be of mutual benefit if their PVP policies adopt a common framework concerning the strictness and liberality of PVP statutes, as they are involved in the exchange of genetic material, parental lines and hybrid seeds, as well as technologies.

Intermember country trade in hybrid rice seeds

Some member countries have yet to develop the domestic capability to commercially produce hybrid seeds. If they wait to develop their own home-grown hybrid rice technology, there will be a delay in the use of the technology. A feasible strategy is to take advantage of the successes of other countries by engaging in commercial trade in hybrid rice seeds with the purpose of immediately stimulating domestic demand. A minimum requirement is that imported seed meets the internationally accepted SPSS. This activity is better left to the private seed industry so that companies are directly accountable.

Under the overriding national policy framework of food security in rice in member countries, the case of hybrid rice presents a strong justification for importing high quality hybrid rice seed from other countries.

CONCLUSION

The basic elements needed for hybrid rice technology on large-scale cultivation in member countries are:

• a significant increase in yield of hybrids over the best inbred by 20 percent or more;

• acceptable grain quality;

• stable agronomic traits of high yield, pest and disease resistance and tolerance;

• F₁ seed cost readily recoverable from increased yield and income; and

• no drastic changes for rice farmers in terms of agronomic practices and costs.

Policy interventions to provide the appropriate climate for large-scale cultivation in member countries are:

• National commitment to hybrid rice as a tool for achieving food security with an appropriate budget (including technical assistance) to support a national programme of hybrid rice research and development focused on the needs of seed producers, farmers and consumers, including collaboration between the public and private seed sectors.

• Preferential policy for promoting and supporting the private seed industry in hybrid technology development, IPR, seed quality regulation, seed production and distribution, with investment from private entities (the case of Viet Nam may be different); avoidance of price control policy for selling F₁ seeds.

• Engaging in intermember country trade of hybrid rice seeds to stimulate domestic demand in the early stages, taking advantage of the success of other countries (technology transfer).