The status of cold water fish and fisheries in Nepal and prospects of their utilization for poverty reduction (by D.B. Swar)

Directorate of Fisheries Development,
Central Fisheries Building, Balaju, Kathmandu, Nepal

ABSTRACT

The aquatic ecosystems of Nepal offer excellent habitats to at least 186 indigenous and 11 exotic fish species of high economic, environmental and academic value. Among the total of 186 fish species, 59 have been considered as cold water fish. The most important indigenous cold water fish species are sahar (Tor spp), katle (Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis) and snow trout (Schizothoraichthys spp and Schizothorax spp). They are excellent from the economic and sport fishery point of view, but many other species are fished for subsistence. Cold water fisheries offers a great opportunity for self employment and income generation among poor people living along rivers, lakes and other natural waters. Normally they are widely scattered and not organized. About 400 000 beneficiaries are engaged in this subsector. As the watersheds inhabited by the important species are shared by a number of nations, a regional cooperative effort is a necessity to share experiences and initiate collective actions to conserve and manage these shared aquatic resources.

1. BACKGROUND

Nepal (26°20'-30°10'N and 80°15'-88°19'E) has common frontiers with the Xizang Zizhiqu (Tibet) Autonomous Region of China in the north and with India in the west, east and south. It has an area of 147 181 km² and is divided into three physiographic regions, from south to north: the Terai plain, the mid hills and the Himalayas (CBS, 1992). The Terai lies between 130 m and 500 m elevation, the lower hills up to 2 700 m, the upper hills up to 4 000 m, and the greater Himalayas are located above the tree line (>4 600 m). Mountains and hills make up 83 percent of the area of Nepal while the Terai occupies only 17 percent. The Himalayas in the north strongly influence the climate of Nepal. The country may be divided into three climatic zones according to altitude: subtropical in the Terai, temperate in the hills, and alpine in the mountains. The climate varies little from east to west.

1.1 Water resources

Nepal is endowed with many forms of water resources scattered throughout the country (Table 1). These water bodies are in the form of rivers and streams, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, swamps and paddy fields. On the basis of the resource availability, the rivers are of major importance representing about 49 percent of the total water area. Lakes and reservoirs cover 0.8 percent, and swamps and irrigated paddy fields share the rest of 50.2 percent. Open waters cover approximately 5.5 percent of the total area of Nepal.

Table 1

Estimated water surface area in Nepal (FDD, 1996)

1.2 Fishery resources

The aquatic ecosystems of Nepal offer excellent habitats to at least 186 indigenous and 11 exotic fish species of high economic, environmental and academic value (Shrestha, 1995; Subba and Ghosh, 1996; Shrestha, 1999). They are distributed from Terai, through the hills to the Himalayan mountains up to the altitude of ca. 4 000 m a.s.l. They inhabit rivers and lakes of mid hills and mountains, with water temperature of 10°-20°C. The large-scaled cyprinids (sahar - Tor spp, and katle - Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis) may tolerate a wider range of temperature. Among the total of 186 fish species, 59 native and 2 exotic are considered as cold water fish (Table 2). The most important indigenous cold water fish species are katle - snow trout (Schizothoraichthys spp and Schizothorax spp), and sahar. They are excellent from the economic and sport fishery point of view, but many other species are fished for subsistence.

Table 2

Cold water fish in Nepal

Two exotic fish species of food and sport value are rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brown trout (Salmo trutta). Rainbow trout was introduced in 1968 and 1971 from India, and in 1988 from Japan, while brown trout was introduced in 1971 from England and Japan.

1.2.1 Capture fishery

Capture fishery is widely scattered throughout the kingdom of Nepal and is not well organized. The fishers are dispersed along rivers where they use their traditional gears for fishing. Subsistence and sport fishery are practiced at different levels of intensity on different rivers. Most of the captured fish are consumed around the catch sites. In order to increase the fish resources in large inland water bodies (lakes and reservoirs), selected fish species are often stocked. Fish selected for stocking are those that do not reproduce naturally in the particular water body, such as silver carp, bighead carp and grass carp, but also those that reproduce naturally, such as common carp, sahar and katle. The enhancement is being carried out in the lakes of Pokhara Valley and in Indrasarobar reservoir by fisheries officers in collaboration with the local fishermen communities.

2. ROLE OF COLD WATER FISH IN SUPPORTING THE LIVELIHOOD OF RURAL POPULATION

Fish captured from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, marginal swamps and paddy fields have an important role as a source of animal protein, as well as source of income, providing employment opportunities to local fisher folk communities.

Aquaculture: Cold water aquaculture in Nepal is still in its beginnings. Only a few indigenous species have been domesticated. Their culture has yet to be adopted by the private sector. Among the exotic species rainbow trout is cultured in the public sector Fisheries Research Centres. Recently several fish farmers have started its culture on a pilot basis. While at present cold water aquaculture in Nepal has only a small role in supporting the livelihood in mountainous regions it is becoming popular among the farmers.

Open water fishery: Capture fishery is often the only source of livelihood for the fisher's communities near water bodies. Capture fisheries from natural and man-made water bodies are traditional. The estimated fish yields from capture fisheries for the last three years are presented in Table 3.

Table 3

Estimated fish production from capture fishery in Nepal

Note: total area of swamps - 12 500 ha. Fish cultured in 600 ha. Unused area of swamps is 11 900 ha.

Most of the studies were carried out during the feasibility study of hydroelectric projects. Patchy studies on dam sites are mostly for environmental impact assessment (EIA). Data on fish catches and production were estimated for a certain stretch of two rivers, and total production estimates for the rivers are presented in Tables 4 and 5.

Table 4

Annual fish catch and yield estimates for rivers

1.Swar and Shrestha (1998); 2. Bisgaard et al. (1999); 3. FRC Trisuli (1993,1996); 4. Kali Gandaki 'A' (Associates et al., 1996); 5. Neupane and Poudel (1999)

Table 5

Capture fisheries in the Seti Valley (from Neupane and Poudel, 1999)

The capture fisheries is widely scattered throughout mid hill valleys, high hills and mountains of the country. There is no concentrated effort, and fishing is not organized, hence the fish production has been assessed as small-scale. Fishers are mostly scattered and use traditional gears with nominal economic benefits. The fished areas and production are presented in Table 6. A large number of perhaps 400 000 beneficiaries are engaged in this activity.

Table 6

Annual catch and percentage contribution from different types of water bodies (adapted from Swar and Bisgaard, 1999)

Community involvement in open water fish captures: Capture fisheries play a significant role in providing income generating employment opportunity to local fisher folk communities. Capture fisheries in Nepal are widely scattered and not organized. The fishers living along rivers and lakes use traditional fishing gear mainly for subsistence production, generating only a marginal economic benefit. The fisheries can be developed through proper fisheries management, including enhancement and aquaculture. Rivers, which are spread throughout the country, provide fresh fish to the rural people. From an increase in river fish catches most rural people would benefit from the nutritional point of view, and the benefits would also go to the people living further away from the rivers. Investment in capture fisheries is much lower than inputs required for aquaculture and other income generating activities. It benefits poor rural people, as little investment is needed in fishing gear. The fishers use different kinds of traditional fishing gear like nets, baskets, rod and line, spearing, fish traps and indigenous fish poison, as well as some destructive fishing methods such as insecticides, pesticides, dynamiting and electric fishing (Swar and Shrestha, 1998; Swar and Bisgaard, 1999).

Fishing technology and fisher communities: Fishers and their communities living along or around open waters are widely scattered and not organized. In most cases, fishing supplements their agriculture activities. Only few fishermen in some river valleys (Seti valley) use fishing as the sole employment. The main part of fish catch is consumed locally. Involvement of fisher's community in open water fishery as an employment is presented in Table 7.

3. HUMAN IMPACT ON NATIVE COLD WATER FISH

Human activities cause the following problems:

Siltation: Conversion of forested lands on steep slopes into agricultural land, and road construction in the mountain regions have resulted in heavy soil erosion during the monsoon season. Soil erosion affects the river ecology, resulting in the loss of breeding and nursing grounds of the riverine fish species. Fish are affected indirectly when their food organisms are destroyed. Mechanical injury or blocking of gills from silt or other suspended material has also affected the river fish fauna.

Table 7

Estimated number of fishermen in capture fisheries

1. FRC Pokhara, (1998); 2. Bisgaard et al. (1999); 3. FDD (personal communication) 4. FDD (personal communication), 5. Swar and Shrestha (1998); 6. Kali Gandaki 'A' Associates et al. (1996); 7. Neupane and Poudel (1999); 8. Swar and Bisgaard (1999)

Chemical pollution: Several rivers including the Bagmati and Bishnumati in Kathmandu Valley, Sirsia in Parwanipur and Birganj, Mushari Paini in Biratnagar, and Sunsari near Inurawa receive a heavy load of domestic and industrial sewage consisting of a combination of organic, inorganic and living matter, especially bacteria and protozoans. The pollution kills fish along with many other aquatic organisms. Nutrient-rich fertilizer runoff increases the rate of eutrophication. Excessive quantities of non-biodegradable debris (such as plastic materials) are becoming a serious hazard to fish, which ingest the material or are entrapped by it. There is also a growing concern over the unrestricted discharge of effluents into the Narayani River from a paper mill, brewery, grease, textile and several other industries.

Introduction of exotic species: There are several instances where an exotic species, especially a piscivore, has had adverse effects on local fish (Frey, 1969). The presence of high numbers of common carp resulted in an adverse effect on the native fish of the upper Mississippi River (Lubinski et al., 1986). However, there are also instances where an exotic species has had positive effect on the indigenous fish community, e.g. in Lake Parakrama, Sri Lanka (Fernando, 1984), where tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus was introduced. Nepal is still far from having such experience and information on the effect of exotic fish on the native fauna is not available. However, a 42% reduction of the native fish Mystus spp and Puntius spp after introduction of bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) has been observed in Lake Begnas in Pokhara Valley (Swar and Gurung, 1988).

Overfishing, illegal fishing: The ever-increasing human population has become the main cause of high, illegal and irrational fishing pressure on the aquatic ecosystems of the country. Fishing effort has been intensified without considering the size and species of fish. Such activities not only degrade the target fish population by changing the population size and structure, but also affect other species linked to it in the food chain. Non-target species may also be injured or killed by the use of unsuitable fishing gear and practices.

Use of small mesh gill nets: Several types of fishing gears, e.g. cast nets, small mesh size seine nets (chatty jal), gill net trammel nets, are used in different rivers of Nepal. Gill nets, especially those with small mesh size, tend to be nonselective in their catch. Thus large quantity of fish fry, fingerlings smaller than the legal size limit and non-targeted species such as juvenile Gangetic dolphin, crocodiles and turtles are captured and killed as by-catch by fishers. Mortalities of these non-target organisms may have an unwanted impact on the riverine ecosystem and the aquatic biodiversity (Swar and Shrestha, 1998).

Use of explosives: A number of small and large road construction projects are underway in Nepal. Such projects are provided with explosives to facilitate their construction work, but unfortunately the explosives are often misused in killing fish in large numbers. They are killed together with other aquatic animals, and this is accompanied by a damage to the habitat, which recovers only slowly.

Electrofishing: Use of electricity to catch fish in small shallow rivers and streams is yet another way of destructive fishing. It is usually not selective, killing fish of all stages.

Poison: Traditionally, different plants have been used for killing fish (Karki and Rai, 1982). In recent years the practice has been further intensified by the use of chemical pesticides (Aldrin, Thiodine, BHC, Malathion, DDT, etc). Free access to hazardous chemicals, insecticides and pesticides and their rampant use is, consequently, another threat to our inland fish fauna.

Hydraulic engineering: In addition to the above-mentioned human interventions, water resource development activities and infrastructure projects are responsible for altering the ecological conditions of aquatic ecosystems. Three main types of structures are used either in combination or separately: dams and impoundment, levees and canals. These structures affect riverine and associated ecosystems, both upstream and downstream of the structures (Ward and Stanford, 1979; Petts, 1984; Swar, 1992).

4. CONSERVATION AND MITIGATION MEASURES

In response to the growing global awareness about the importance of maintaining a balance between economic development and environmental conservation, the Nepal Environmental Policy and Action Plan (NEPAP) has been prepared and launched. NEPAP is a part of HMG's continuing effort to incorporate environmental concern into the country development process. Efficient and sustainable management of natural and physical resources and mitigating the adverse environmental impacts of development projects and human action are the main theme of NEPAP. Conservation of fishery resources is part and parcel of the broad NEPAP. The following measures have been carried out to conserve fisheries resource in Nepalese water systems:

Legislative arrangement: Conservation of aquatic life is addressed by the Aquatic Animal Protection Act 2017 (1961) (AAPA), which prohibits the use of explosive or poisonous substances in any body of water where the intention is to catch or kill aquatic life. This act has been revised by the parliament and consolidated in 1999. HMG/N has formulated aquatic life protection regulation and the procedure of its implementation. It regulates fishing gears, size of the fish and season. Study on the effects of development projects on fishery resources and implementation of mitigative measures has been made mandatory under this regulation.

Environmental Impact Assessment: After the implementation of the NEPAP, Nepal has introduced legal or institutional mechanisms for the use of EIA. Impact of development projects on aquatic life is thoroughly assessed and several measures are taken to mitigate the adverse impact of a project. The establishment of a fish hatchery and fish trapping and handling activities under Kali Gandaki 'A' Hydropower Project are examples of such measures.

Establishment of fish sanctuaries: The majority of fish inhabiting rivers are extremely sensitive to modifications and to the environmental changes that occur in modified rivers. An extensive network of protected areas has now been established in Nepal. Nepal has six national parks, four wildlife reserves and one hunting reserve, encompassing an area of over 11 000 km² or 7.4 percent of the country, with fishing being strictly prohibited in water bodies situated on their territory.

Fish species in Nepal: According to Shrestha, J. (this volume) there are 182 fish species in Nepal, belonging to 92 genera under 31 families and 11 orders. Of these cold waters are inahbited by 59 indigenous and two exotic species. The present status of fish species (based on an older account listing 185 species) is given in Table 8. Native fish species recommended for legal protection are listed in Table 9. One species (Tor tor) is listed as endangered, 9 species as vulnerable.

Table 8

Status of fish species in Nepal (adapted from Shrestha, 1995)

Promulgation of Aquatic Animal Protection regulations: Aquatic Animal Protection Act (AAPA) was passed in 1961, in 1999 the Government promulgated AAPA regulations. The guidance, policies, and experience related to the development of fisheries have now been defined. In the past fisheries in inland water bodies have often been subject to ecological damage from poisoning, bombing, poaching and stealing of fish. In order to protect national interests and the legal rights of fishermen the law defines concrete administrative penalties, civil liabilities and responsibilities.

Fish trapping and hauling:

Fish trapping and hauling is an alternate for assisting natural fish migration. Trapping can be used for a variety of fish species and sizes. Migratory species can be captured and hauled. It is applied in the Kali Gandaki 'A' Hydropower Project.

Table 9

List of species recommended for legal protection

Fish ladder:

One of the remedies commonly proposed for blockages to migration caused by dams is the construction of fish passage or fish ladder. Most of the existing and proposed water development projects in Nepal do not have fish ladders. There are only few examples of fish ladders (e.g., Koshi barrage, Chandra Nahar in Trijuga, Andhi Khola and Gandak barrage). But very little is known about their performance.

Fish hatchery:

Establishment of a fish hatchery is another measure for mitigating the impact of a dam formation on the native fish fauna. Hatcheries play an important role in fish conservation and management in developing countries. In recent years, their efficiency has increased with better knowledge of the biological and reproductive requirements of fish. A fish hatchery is being established at Kali Gandaki 'A' Hydropower Project.

5. DOMESTICATION OF ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT FISH SPECIES

5.1 Indigenous species

Among the 59 indigenous cold water fish species of Nepal, Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis (katle), Tor Tor, Tor putitora (sahar, mahseer or mahaseer), and Schizothorax richardsonii, Schizothoraichthys progastus (snow trout or asala) have been identified as important for sport fishery as well as being excellent food fish. Their domestication started in the 1970s at the Trishuli Fishery Research Center (then FDC Trishuli) by catching their juveniles from the Trishuli and Tadi rivers and culturing them in earthen ponds. Brood stock was collected from the river and fed with artificial feed. In August, brood fish ready to spawn were stripped without using hormone injection (Rai, 1978; Rai and Swar, 1989). Since then katle has been bred in the Trishuli Fisheries Research Center every year. Besides its propagation and domestication, feeding, behavior, growth and reproductive aspects of these fish have been thoroughly studied by Swar (1994). Domestication of mahseer started at the same time. The juveniles were captured from the river and cultured in an earthen pond of the Trishuli FRC. They were also domesticated in the nylon-submerged cages in Lake Phewa in Pokhara Valley. Mahseer has been bred in Trishuli and Pokhara FRC since then. Now its growth is being observed with different diets in captivity. Fish fry is being produced on a mass scale. Snow trouts are also bred in the FRC Trishuli every year and observations on growth with different diets are in progress. The seed of these species was introduced to improve the inland fisheries in the rural hills of Papua New Guinea.

At present there are three Fisheries Research Centres (Trishuli, Godawary and Pokhara) where these cold water fish are being propagated and trials are going on to culture them in captivity. In addition to these research centres one cold water fish hatchery is being established in Shyanja District for propagating these species to mitigate the adverse effect of the Kali Gandaki 'A' Hydropower Project on these important fish species. There are ten qualified experts and thirty experienced technicians working on these economically important fish. Besides their work in the public sector, several researchers have also studied these fish (mahseer, katle, snow trout) in the natural habitat and in controlled conditions (Shrestha, T.K., 1976, 1979, 1979a, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1992). Expertise has been provided to Pakistan and Papua New Guinea.

5.2 Exotic species

Eleven exotic fish species of food and sport value have been introduced in Nepal. These include the cold water rainbow trout introduced in 1968 and 1971 from India, and in 1988 from Japan. Brown trout was introduced in 1971 from England and Japan. Prior to that the first rainbow trout fingerlings from Kashmir, India, and fertilized eggs (eye stage) from the United Kingdom, were reared in the Godawary Fishery Development Centre, Lalitpur. The first trout hatchery was established in Nuwakot on the bank of the river Trishuli. Its objective was to propagate, rear and release the trout in suitable hill streams to establish sport fishery for tourist development. These trout were later transferred to the Trishuli trout hatchery but the trout did not survive. Realising the importance of trout for cold waters of Nepal, 50 000 eyed stage eggs of Oncorhynchus mykiss were again imported from Japan in November/December 1988 and incubated in the Godawary Fisheries Development Centre where about 80 percent of eggs hatched. The hatchlings were reared to the fingerling stage and half of the fingerlings were sent to the Trishuli Fishery Development Centre. This Centre has developed pellet feed for trout. The Centre also succeeded in breeding the trout without hypophysation. A similar success has been achieved in the Godawary Fishery Development Centre.

Research on the growth rate of trout, local feed effectiveness and spawning behavior of trout in Nepalese waters and on interactions between native fish and exotic species is being implemented by the FRCs Trishuli and Godawary. Rainbow trout is being produced to the marketing size (Joshi and Westland, 1996). Research and development trials are also being conducted in farmer's ponds and the results are encouraging. In addition to aquaculture rainbow trout fingerlings have also been recently introduced in one of the isolated rivers in high hills (Modi River). Studies are carried out to assess the survival rate of rainbow trout and its impact on native fish fauna. Besides these activities in Nepal rainbow trout seed has also been exported to Thailand. Nepalese experts under a TCDC programme sponsored by JICA provide technical assistance. Trout farming is gaining popularity among the farmers of high hill region due to its excellent taste and high value.

6. FUTURE POTENTIAL OF COLD WATER FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT IN THE COUNTRY AND PROSPECTS FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION

6.1 Food, employment, recreational fisheries, ornamental values

Nepalese rivers originating from the Himalayan Range are inhabited by a number of indigenous fish species, including the snow trout (Schizothorax macrophthalmus, S. molesworthii, S. nepalensis, S. plagiostomus, S. raraensis, S. richardsonii, Schizothoraichthys annandalei, S. esocinus, S. progastus). The rivers are spawning and nursery grounds for katle (Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis) and mahseer (Tor putitora, Tor tor). Besides these species, there are many other cold water species including Puntius chilinoides, Labeo angra, L. dero, Barilius spp, Chagunius chagunio, Clupisoma garua and Bagarius bagarius, which have promising potential from the fisheries point of view. Most of these fish are valued for their size, food and sporty nature. The local people also appreciate other hill stream fish as subsistence food. And as already mentioned above, in addition to the native species, rainbow trout and brown trout have been introduced in Nepal for cold water high value fish production.

Improvement of fisheries in rivers and lakes offers a great opportunity for self-employment and income generation among poor - mostly landless - people living close to such waters. An increase in capture fisheries in natural waters would benefit poor rural people by raising their economic status, and could thereby enable these people to invest in other income generating activities such as aquaculture.

Cold water fish are not only a protein source in the diet, but they also offer a great potential for sport fishing, especially for the game fish sahar, katle and asala. Sport fishing as an activity within the tourist industry should be developed much further. It offers a great potential for generating income for the country as a whole, and employment and income for rural people. A number of river fish species have ornamental value and this potential needs to be assessed and exploited.

6.2 Further development of river fisheries

To increase fish production from rivers and streams of Nepal requires proper fisheries management, including regular stocking. As the river systems form a well developed net throughout the country this makes fish available to many rural people. In areas with easy access to roads, an increase in fisheries, from a nutritional point of view, will also benefit people living further away from the rivers.

It is reasonable to expect fish yields from the plains in Nepal to be as high as the yields in India and Bangladesh, and through wise management a significant increase could be achieved. The yield/ha/year in rivers of Nepal has been estimated as 22 to 637 kg/km/year, and 46 to 117 kg/ha/year (Table 4). The yield decreases with increasing altitude.

6.3 Prospect for fisheries enhancement in lakes and reservoirs

From a national point of view, the potential of lake and reservoir fisheries is of less importance because of the limited area, but at the local level the potential is of great importance. From a management point of view it is relatively easy to manage fisheries activities in such water bodies because of their local nature. With proper enhancement measures, including cage and pen culture, the yield potential from lakes and reservoirs is higher than that for rivers and this is an important factor in local nutrition, income generation and employment. If there is good access to roads, part of the yield can be sold in distant markets, increasing the well-being of local communities.

Within the next 20 years fish production in Nepal is estimated to increase from 800 t to 2800 t mainly as a result of the increase in the total reservoir area. This increase comes from the construction of dams for hydropower generation in Dudh Koshi, West Seti, Andhi Khola and others. A potential increase from 100 kg/ha to 180 kg/ha is expected for lakes and 200 kg/ha to 280 kg/ha for reservoirs.

The increasing number of hydroelectric power stations and irrigation projects is likely to add more water bodies in the years to come. A feasibility study on various river basins and systems indicates an addition of about 78 000 ha of reservoirs upon their completion (Pradhan and Shrestha, 1997). This increases the production potential for reservoirs dramatically although there may be a decline in the yield from rivers if no action is taken to counteract the negative impact of dams on riverine fisheries. When constructing dams in the future several measures have to be taken to mitigate these projects' impact on riverine fisheries.

6.4 Prospects of cold water aquaculture

Studies carried out in research centres in Nepal on the introduced rainbow trout led to the preparation of a technology package on their breeding and culture. By now three private fish farms, two north-west (Ranipauwa) from Kathmandu Valley and one in the Western Development Region (Birethanti) produce trout for markets. More farmers are interested and expansion of rainbow trout aquaculture is gaining momentum. Abundance of unpolluted cold water flowing down the Himalayas is an important factor for the development of cold water fish culture.

7. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

To further develop capture fisheries and aquaculture in Nepal the following recommendations are put forward.

• Conduct a socio-economic baseline survey of fisheries communities. The fishery in natural waters is directly dependent on the socio-economic conditions of the fishermen. A survey is very important and relevant for the economic up-liftment of fishing communities as well as for the development of natural water fisheries in the country.

• Develop tools for systematic and comprehensive collection of fisheries statistics. This is urgently needed for a sound fisheries management.

• Initiate investigations in fish population dynamics in Nepalese rivers. First priority should be given to accessible and important water bodies, to be followed up by the other water bodies.

• Initiate investigations in stocking of fish in rivers for enhancement of fish production.

• Deepen investigations in limnology of natural waters. Knowledge of limnology is the basis for understanding the fish production in natural waters.

• Initiate investigations into the possibilities of aquaculture in rivers and streams utilizing indigenous species.

• Establish a Natural Waters/Wetlands Development and Conservation Committee at the national level to adopt a clear cut policy for natural waters/wetlands conservation and utilization.

• Aquatic resources should be included in the planning process. Being appended to agriculture development programmes, fisheries have not received due priority. Policies should be adopted to ensure that the fisheries resources are adequately protected.

• At present, the rivers of Nepal are utilized either for generating hydroelectric power or for irrigation purposes only, with little consideration being given to their fisheries value. For the conservation of the freshwater fishery resources it is important to involve fisheries scientists and local communities in the planning and feasibility study phases of water resources development projects.

• Increase popular awareness of the need for fish protection and development of sustainable fisheries. This activity plays an important role in poverty alleviation as well as in providing source of needed food.

• Initiate activities for further development of manpower in the field of open water fisheries management. Nepal continues to be short of well qualified technical and managerial man-power.

• As the countries of the Trans-Himalayan region share many important fish species, a regional cooperative effort is needed to share experiences and to initiate collective activities to protect and manage such valuable fisheries resources.

References

Bisgaards, J., K.B. Karki and R. Ranjit, 1999. Report on fishery survey in Sunkoshi River. Fisheries Development Division, Kathmandu. 20p.

Central Bureau of Statistics, 1992. Statistical pocket book, 1992, Nepal. Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission, His Majesty's Government, Kathmandu, Nepal. 302p.

Fernando, C.H., 1984. Reservoirs and lakes of Southeast Asia (Oriental Region). In: Lakes and Reservoirs (F.B. Taub, ed.): 411-446. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam.

Frey, D.G., 1969. A limnological reconnaissance of Lake Lanao. Verh. Int. Ver. Limnol. 17: 1090-1102.

Joshi, P.L. and L.M. Westlund Lofvall, 1996. Production technology and prospects of trout farming in Nepal. In: 1997. Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Role of Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Economic Development of Rural Nepal, 15-16 August 1996. Kathmandu, Nepal (D.B. Swar, G.B.N. Pradhan and L.M. Westlund Lofvall, eds.): 27-34. Nepal Fish. Soc., Kathmandu, Nepal.

Kaligandaki 'A' Associates, Morrison Knudsen Corp, Norconsult Int'l and IVO International Ltd, 1996. Environmental Impact Assessment, Kaligandaki 'A' Hydroelectric Project Detailed Design Vol 1, HMG/Nepal, Nepal Electricity Authority, Kathmandu. 351p.

Karki, K.B. and A.K. Rai, 1982. Observation on the effectiveness of some local plants used as fish poison. Proceeding of the First National Science and Technology Congress held in Kathmandu, Nepal 22-24 September, 1982: 270-273.

Lubinski, K.S., A. Van Vooren, G. Farabee, J. Janecek and S.D. Jackson, 1986. Common carp in the Upper Mississippi River. Hydrobiologia 136: 141-154.

Neupane, B. and S. Paudel, 1999. Socio-economic study of fishers community of River Seti-West. A report submitted to Nepal Electricity Authority, Kathmandu. 50p.

Petts, G.E., 1984. Impounded Rivers: Perspectives for Ecological Management. Chichester, England, John Wiley and Sons. 326 p.

Pradhan, G.B.N. and S.B. Shrestha, 1997. Status of fisheries and aquaculture development and their potential for expansion in Nepal. In: Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Role of Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Economic Development of Rural Nepal, 15-16 August 1996, Kathmandu (D.B. Swar, G.B.N. Pradhan and L.M. Lofvall Westlund, eds.). NEFIS, Nepal.

Rai, A.K., 1978. Artificial breeding of katle - Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis (McClelland). J. Nat. Hist. Mus. 2(1-5): 45-50.

Rai, A.K. and D.B. Swar, 1989. Katle (Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis), a cold water cyprinid of Nepal. FAO Fisheries report. No. 405 (Suppl.): 95-99. Rome, FAO.

Shrestha, J., 1995. Enumerarion of the fishes of Nepal. Biodiversity Profiles Project. His Majesty's Government of Nepal/Government of Netherlands. Euroconsult, Arnhem, The Netherlands. 150 p.

Shrestha J., 1999. Cold water fish and fisheries in Nepal. FAO Fish. Tech.Pap. No. 385: 13-40. Rome, FAO.

Shrestha, T.K., 1976. A new report on the induced breeding of Nepalese hill stream trout Schizothorax plagiostomus. J. Ins. Sc. 1: 171-176.

Shrestha, T.K., 1979. Life history of the hill stream trout Schizothorax plagiostomus (Heckel) J. Ins. Sc. 2(1): 209-222.

Shrestha, T.K., 1979a. Studies on resource, biology and ecology of fresh waters of Kathmandu Valley with particular reference to fish production, management, marketing and conservation. Research project sponsored by Research Division of Tribhuwan University, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Shrestha, T.K., 1986. Spawning ecology and behavior of Himalayan mahseer Tor putitora (Ham.) in the Himalayan Water's of Nepal. In: The First Asian Fisheries Forum (J. L. Maclean, L.P. Dizon and L.V. Hoslills, eds): 589-692. Asian Fisheries Society, Philippines.

Shrestha, T.K., 1989. Breeding of the mahaseer Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis by hormone stimulation. J. Env. Zool. 3: 22-27.

Shrestha T.K., 1990. Behavior of mahaseer Tor putitora in nature and captivity. J. Freshwater Biol. 2(3): 209-219.

Shrestha T.K., 1992. Propagation of mahaseer in the Himalayan waters of Nepal. In: Aquaculture and Schistosomiasis: 61-78. Proceedings of a Network Meeting held in Manila, Philippines, August 6-10, 1991. National Academy Press. Washington, D.C.

Swar, D.B., 1992. Effect of impoundment of the indigenous fish population in Indrasarobar Reservoir, Nepal. In: Reservoir fishery management in Asia (S.S. De Silva, ed.): 111-118. Proceedings of 2nd Asian Reservoir fisheries Workshop held in Hangzhu, People's Republic of China, 15-19 October 1990. IDRC, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Swar, D.B., 1994. A Study on the Ecology of Katle Neolissocehilus hexagonolepis (McClelland) in a Nepalese Reservoir and River. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Zoology, The University of Manitoba. 264p.

Swar, D.B., 1997. Fisheries Resources of Marsyangdi River: Environment and Socio-economic Impact Assessment of Middle Marsyangdi Hydropower Project, Nepal. An EIA report submitted to Lahmeyer International. 36p.

Swar, D.B. and T.B. Gurung, 1988. Introduction and cage culture of exotic carps and their impact on fish harvested in Lake Begnas, Nepal. Hydrobiologia 166: 277-283.

Swar, D.B. and J. Shrestha, 1997. Human impact on aquatic ecosystems and native fishes of Nepal. In: Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Role of Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Economic Development of Rural Nepal, 15-16 August 1996, Kathmandu (D.B. Swar, G.B.N. Pradhan and L.M. Lofvall Westlund, eds.). NEFIS, Nepal.

Swar, D.B. and J. Bisgaard, 1999. Utilization and conservation of natural water resources for fisheries development in Nepal. In: Proceedings of the National Workshop on the Prospect of Fisheries Development under the Agriculture Perspective Plan, 1998, 4-5 November Kathmandu: 19-33. Inland Aquaculture and Fisheries Section, FDD, DOA, HMG, Nepal.

Subba, B.R. and J.K. Ghosh, 1996. A new record of the pigmy barb Puntius phutunio (Ham.) from Nepal. J. Freshwater Biol. 8(3): 159-161.

Ward. J.V. and V.A. Stanford, 1979. The Ecology of Regulated Rivers. New York, Plenum Press. 398p.