Chapter XVI - Nepal case study: High altitude pastoral systems of Sailung and Thodung regions, Ramechap District, Nepal - S.M. Pradhan, D. Pariyar, K.K. Shrestha and J.R. Adhikary

Summary

Two grazing systems were studied, both based on raising bought-in chauris for milk. The first system, in Thodung, is highly commercialized and based around a milk-purchasing organization; the second, in Sailung, has no outlet for fresh milk so only ghee and local dried cheese is sold. This difference in market opportunities gives rise to marked differences in incomes. Grazing areas are between 2 500 and 3 100 m in Sailung; up to 2 800 m they are in the vicinity of forest, while higher pastures are open and treeless. The rangelands of Thodung are between 2 600 and 4 000 m, with grazing up to 2 800 m in the vicinity of forest, while higher areas are treeless. There are problems of overgrazing, compounded by the summer grazings being also the winter grazing of yaks belonging to other communities, and the winter areas are used in summer by buffaloes from the lower areas. In both places, chauris (yak-cow hybrids) are the main stock, purchased elsewhere; calves are slaughtered at a few days. Old and unproductive chauris are sold to traders, often over the Tibetan border. Herds stay in the lower areas for about four months and spend four months in the highest areas. During their passage between seasonal grazing lands they use the transitional pastures for about four months (in March-April and September-October). The distance between camping points is about 1-2 hours walk. In summer, and at transition points, chauris graze around the camps.

In Sailung, herd size is about 20; milk is made into chhurpi and butter. Two contractors collect chhurpi and butter. The dominant sward species are Danthonia cachemiriana, Agrostis sp. Potentilla fulgens, Duchesnea indica and Onychium sp. An annual income of US$ 81.18 per chauri is obtained from dairy products over a 7-8 month period (April to October). Average income is US$ 984 to US$ 2 460 annually, depending on herd size.

In Thodung, chauris are the main stock and no sheep are kept, in contrast to the herd composition in Sailung; herd size is 22. Sale of fresh milk is the major source of income. There are three public milk collection centres and three from private dairies. Little difference in vegetation was found from 2 800 to 3 300 m; the predominant species at 3 300 m were Danthonia sp., Pogonatherum paniceum and Anaphalis contortus. In open grassland at 3 170 m, the dominant species were Danthonia sp., Pogonatherum paniceum and Trifolium repens. In the fenced area, the dominant species were Pogonatherum paniceum, Danthonia sp., Trifolium repens, Caltha palustris, Anaphalis contortus and Galium aparine. The average number of chauri in a herd is 22 and the annual income from milk sale is US$ 3 057, with almost half of it spent on management, feed and medicine, giving a net profit of US$ 1 529 from a herd with 22 chauri.

Background

Two grazing systems were studied, both based on raising bought-in chauris for milk. The one system is highly commercialized and based around a milk-purchasing organization; the other system has no outlet for fresh milk, so sells only ghee and local dried cheese. Livestock provide milk, meat, fibre, manure and draught for the population of the hilly and mountainous tracts, but production per animal is very low due to undernutrition, mainly because of overstocking. Household production systems involve crops, livestock, forestry and some trade.

Explosive population growth in the last decades has upset the balance previously secured by local ingenuity and left herders with no technical solution to their problems. They have been forced to cultivate steep slopes, unfit for sustained farming, even with astonishingly elaborate terracing (Rajbhandary and Pradhan, 1981). Mountain agriculture can no longer support population growth. According to the Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP, 1986), the grazing area of Nepal covers about 17 000 km², or 12 percent of the total land area. However, only 37 percent of the pasture is available or accessible to livestock (Pariyar, 1998). The grazing areas, which are unique ecosystems with a high level of endemism, are slowly being turned into barren land (Yonzon, 1998). Common property has been misused due to lack of stewardship and ownership. In some areas, rotational grazing is organized by communities and herders pay a fee to graze their animals on specific areas.

Households in the high mountain and Trans-Himalayan region keep 15 to 30 chauris (the female hybrid of yak and cattle) and at least 60 to 70 sheep and goats. They are in transhumance most of the time, returning twice yearly to their settlement, to sow and harvest barley. The whole terrain appears to be semi-arid desert. Their main source of income is from livestock (Rajbhandary and Pradhan, 1981).

Ramechap district in the hill and mountain region, at 27°28_’-27°50_’ N and 85°50_’-86°35_’ E, has several grazing lands in the high mountain area, including Sailung and Thodung (Site IV in Figure 9.1). Much of northern Ramechap is at high altitude (1 000-4 848 m), while the south is in the mid-hill region (700 m). The climate sequence from south to north is cool, temperate and alpine. The average annual minimum temperature for the whole district is about 11.9°C and the maximum is 21.3°C; temperatures in the high pastures are, of course, very much lower. The average annual precipitation is 2 025 mm.

Out of a land area of 150 194 ha, cultivated land is 26.6 percent (40 050 ha), uncultivated land is 12.7 percent (19 130 ha), grazing land is 8 percent (11 429 ha), forest is 44 percent (66 152 ha), with 8.7 percent (13 433 ha) classed as “other”. The cereals grown are rice, maize, finger millet, wheat and barley; potato, oilseed rape and sugar cane are cash crops. The food deficit of the whole district is estimated at 2.5 percent (NRA, 1997), but is severe at high altitudes.

Reaching Sailung involves a 4-hour drive from Kathmandu, reaching about 1 500 m, and followed by a trek of 5-6 hours, with a climb of 1 500-2 000 m to the grazing area. Thodung is farther than Sailung from Kathmandu - an 8- hour drive and a trek of 7-8 hours, with a climb of 1 800-3 100 m to the grazing. The unique character of the chauri-rearing system (Plate 62) of Sailung is the involvement of different ethnic groups from Ramechap and Dolakha districts. In Thodung, all the herders are from the Sherpa community.

High altitude transhumance is common from east to west in Nepal along the foothills of the Himalayan range and Trans-Himalaya. Since the closing of Tibetan grazing to Nepalese stock, the number of yak [male] and nak [female] has fallen and that of chauris increased. Yaks are crossed with local low-mountain cattle to produce crosses called Urang chauris (yak × aule cow), which can graze down to 2 000 m. With the introduction of cheese making, coupled with traditional chhurpi cheese production, chauri keepers have no problem in marketing milk and milk products. Yak cheese is tasty and famous among tourists; Kathmandu and the trekking route to Mount Everest base camp are the markets for yak cheese and hard dried chhurpi.

The study aimed to obtain information on the traditional high altitude pastoral system; major constraints and problems of chauri rearing; productivity and condition of different pasture lands; and indigenous knowledge on maintaining and sustaining a high altitude pastoral system. It was hoped that, after identification of the major constraints and problems through a participatory approach, strong linkage could be established among herders, researchers and extension workers to conserve and improve production from existing herds.

In many parts of the country, each village, in addition to the lands nearby, uses pasture in distant places, usually at higher elevations than the settlements. Generally, the inhabitants have the right to use the pasture close to their village, whereas several villages may share a grazing area away from the settlements (Rai and Thapa, 1993). In Kalingchowk (central Nepal), collective right to grazing rests among groups of herders who have banded together for communal moving of the herd; this is ruled by tradition, and each household in the village in principle has the right (provided it has paid the summer pasture tax) to use the village-owned pasture area. Gibbon et al. (1988) reported that in Cheeskam (Solokhumbu), the neighbouring district, only local clan groups have rights to grazing and fodder collection. Members of the same clan group who live elsewhere do not have access to these lands, which are so controlled that specified areas are closed at specified seasons and others reserved for the winter, when large amounts of fodder are needed to feed livestock on the terraces.

Plate 62. Chauris grazing at just below 3000 m near Sailung, Ramechap District, Nepal.

Since 1989, there are no specific grazing rights in Sailung. Chauri herders pay annual taxes decided by the Village Development Committee (VDC) and the money is used for schools, roads and social welfare. In general, each herd has to pay US$ 16-20 annually. Sherpa herders from a neighbouring district use the rangelands in Sailung because only a few of the Sailung Tamang community keep chauris. Similarly in Thodung, an annual contribution of US$ 7-15 per herd is made to the VDC. The herds of Thodung graze in the administrations of Chuchure VDC, Bamti VDC and Gumdel VDC. Traditional demarcation in the use of grazing areas is still maintained.

The study was by interview, field survey and sample collection. Questionnaires were used to record information on stopover and camping points, duration of stay at different points, livestock and their production systems, breeding and calving patterns, health care and mortality, livestock products, productivity and marketing. Similarly, information was recorded on grazing systems, pasture conditions, toxic plants, grazing rights and socio-economic status. With the assistance of herders, grasses, legumes and forbs were identified in the field. Samples were pressed and carried to Kathmandu for identification. A 1 m² quadrat was used to assess green biomass production. Herbage production was assessed by clipping at 2.5 cm above the ground, and major species were recorded. Soil samples of about 1 kg, to 20 cm depth, were taken from 7 grazing areas. Standard sampling procedures were followed. For data on herd composition, 15 herdsmen in Sailung and 58 herdsmen in Thodung were contacted. For household size, literacy, cropping systems and their production, 15 herders in Sailung and 19 herders in Thodung were interviewed.

The Sailung system

Herding families have almost equal proportions of males and females: 57 percent are adult and 43 percent are young. Literacy is very low in males, 20 percent, and poor to negligible in females, 2.2 percent. Ten herdsmen own a total of 8.75 ha of cultivated land. Potatoes are a major crop. Among cereals, wheat, maize and finger millet are grown and annual yields are wheat - 3 tonne; maize - 5.4 tonne; and finger millet - 2.2 tonne. As families can grow only about20 percent of their grain requirement, they are very dependent on chauri rearing.

TABLE 16.1
Sailung grazing lands.

NOTE: n.a. = not available.

Grazing areas are between 2 500 and 3 100 m in Sailung. They vary in size, elevation, aspect, slope and area. Grazing up to 2 800 m is in the vicinity of forest, while higher pastures are open and treeless (Plate 63). Some characteristics of the grazing lands are described in Table 16.1. Soil samples from different grazing lands were analysed. Of the macro-elements, K₂O and N were high, but phosphorous was low; OM was high; and the soil was acid. The average pH value of the samples was 5.2 (range: 4.7-5.9), available K₂O was 538.95 kg/ha (range: 216-1 306 kg/ha), OM was 9.6 percent (range: 6.4-18.2 percent), total N was 0.43 percent (range: 0.29-0.92 percent) and available P₂O₅ was 18.22 kg/ha (range: 10.3-41.2 kg/ha).

The herding system

The route of each herd is fixed throughout the year. Three camping points are used by 16 herds in two major seasons: winter and summer. The camping points, based on their use, are winter (November to February), transitional while going up in March and April and returning in September and October, and summer camping in May to August. There are four distinct routes and, in general, three or four herds follow each route (Figure 16.1). Herds stay in the lower areas for about four months and spend four months in the highest areas. During their passage between seasonal grazing lands they use the transitional pastures (in March-April and September-October). The distance between camping points is about a walk of 1 to 2 hours. In summer and at transitional points, chauris graze lands of either camping point.

Chauris are the main stock and each herd contains about 20. Goats and sheep are kept for additional income, with an average herd having 4 goats and 4 sheep. Generally, three herds share a breeding bull; about half of the herders keep poultry. The main mating season for chauris is June-July; calving is in February-March. Although green feed is very scarce, farmers prefer calving then due to good returns from off-season production. For sheep and goats, three young in two years is common in highland pastoral areas. Lambing is generally in September-October and in March-April, particularly in the lower lands, where kidding twice a year is common. Occasional cases of mastitis and foot-and-mouth disease are seen in chauris. Lambs and kids are sometimes seriously affected by pneumonia.

Milk and dairy products are the major source of income. Milk is made into chhurpi and butter. During a lactation, lasting 8-9 months on average, a chauri gives 1.5 litre of milk daily in the peak period, and half a litre daily in the dry season. Chhurpi is made from skimmed milk. A chauri produces 15 kg of chhurpi and 19 kg butter per year; these are sold to intermediaries at US$ 2.13/kg and US$ 2.59/kg, respectively. Chauris are rarely sold; calves are killed within three to seven days of birth to assure continued milk production. Sheep and goats are used domestically for meat. To establish a new herd, 10-20 chauris are bought from Solukhumbu District through traders; the cost per chauri is on the basis of age. A three- to five-year-old chauri costs US$ 200-250, and is kept up to 12 years of age.

Sheep are shorn twice yearly, using shears made locally, in February-March and September-October. An adult produces 500-700 g annually; the wool is used to make radi (blanket) and pakhi (carpet) for domestic use. Collection of manure from camping points of high altitude and transitional areas is not common. At winter camping points, villagers collect manure for their fields. Calf skins are used as bedding.

Plate 63. Pastures grazed by chauris near Sailung at 3100 m in Ramechap District, Nepal. Note the high mountains in the distance.

FIGURE 16.1. Routes and camping points of the Sailung herds.

There is no cheese factory, so milk is made into chhurpi and butter, which two contractors sell in Kathmandu; the herders have no marketing problems. The prices of chhurpi and butter are US$ 2.13/ kg and US$ 2.59/kg respectively. An annual income of US$ 81.18 per chauri is obtained from dairy products over 7-8 months from April to October. Herd owner income is US$ 984 to US$ 2 460 annually, depending on herd size.

Ruminants are reared on forage from the grazing lands in a transhumant system. Rotational grazing is prevalent. In winter, grazing is short, 5-6 hours, while 8-9 hours is usual in summer. Herders bring chauris to camp for milking and they stay around the shed at night.

The chauri industry is based on grazing, but there is feed scarcity for three months (January-March) so at that time maize flour is boiled, cooled, mixed with salt and fed to animals. Lactating chauris are fed salt and flour daily. Each chauri receives about 40-50 kg of maize flour in a year.

Feeding tree fodder is very rare; it is given to chauris for 2 to 10 days after calving. There are few trees on grazing areas; fodder is lopped by villagers in winter; chauri herders have little chance to do so. The fodder trees are Quercus sp. (Plate 64), sirlinge (unidentified) and sisi (Lindera pulcherrima). Annual production is less than one bhari [30-40 kg] per tree from Quercus and one bhari from three to four sisi and sirlinge.

A total of 45 plant species were collected from the different grazing lands of Sailung. The dominant species were Danthonia cachemiriana, Agrostis sp., Potentilla fulgens, Duchesnea indica, and Onychium sp. Herbage estimation was done in four summer grazing areas, six transitional grazing areas and one winter grazing area, using 0.25 m² quadrats. On average, 1.9 tonne/ha of green herbage was available to the animals. Yield in cages was 9.4 tonne/ha in September. No weed or toxic plant problems were reported, although bloat sometimes occurs when young leaves of angeri (Lyonia ovalifolia) and chyatu (Chlorophytum spp.) are eaten. Grazing lands are in poor condition as a result of overgrazing, with an increase of unpalatable shrubs and inedible plants lowering their productivity. There are no water point problems, except at Bagdhunga, a summer grazing area, where monsoon rain is the only source of water, while water scarcity is common in upper Panichur during April and May.

The Thodung system

Herder families had 52 percent females and 48 percent males. The proportions of adults and young people were similar; average family size was 5.3. Literacy was poor: male literacy was 26 percent and female was 18 percent. Nineteen herdsmen owned 25.45 ha of cultivated upland (bari land - cultivated upland where most of the crops are grown, generally under rainfed conditions, but with supplementary irrigation in hard times) - an average of 1.27 ha for each family.

Plate 64. Oak trees heavily lopped for fodder, Nepal.

TABLE 16.2
Thodung grazing lands.

Maize, wheat, finger millet and potato were grown in the lower bari land (2 600-3 000 m) of the high altitude pastoral system under a well-thought-out management system: the cultivated area is demarcated according to the need and potential for growth. Maize is sown in February and harvested in August; wheat is then sown in the same plot in September and harvested in May. In another plot, finger millet is transplanted in June and harvested in November. In the third plot, potatoes are planted in January and harvested in August. This system is said to produce two crops in 18 months. Rotation of the area for maize and wheat and the area for potato is common. Cropping systems are different in the higher bari land (3 000-3 800 m), with one crop in a year; generally land is demarcated into cereal and potato areas. Wheat, naked barley or barley are sown in September and harvested in June. Potatoes are planted in January and harvested in September. In the household survey, maize, wheat, finger millet and potato produced 3 271.2 kg, 4 384.8 kg, 1 060.8 kg, and 21 715.2 kg respectively, giving a cumulative total yield of 30 432 kg from 25.45 ha, equivalent to an annual production of 1 518.5 kg from each 1.27 ha family plot. An adult is considered to require 626 kg of cereal grain for a year (excluding milling waste and reserved seed), so family requirements (average family size = 5.3) are not met by crops (actual yield of 1 518.5 kg versus requirement of 5.3 × 626 = 3 318 kg, so only 46 percent of total food requirements is covered). This is the prime reason for the people moving towards enterprises generating more income, such as chauri rearing.

The grazing lands of Thodung are between 2 600 and 4 000 m (see Table 16.2). Altogether, 1 200-1 300 chauris from 60 herds use the vast grazing area. Grazing up to 2 800 m is in the vicinity of the forest, while higher areas are treeless grassland. Soil samples from seven grazing areas were analysed. The average pH was highly acid at 4.27 (range: 4.2-4.6). Available phosphorus (P₂O₅) was low, in the range of 14.2 to 30.05 kg/ha (average: 20.04 kg/ha). A full recommended dose of phosphorus would have to be applied to get optimum forage production from these lands. As is general in high altitude areas, average available potash and OM were high - 493.03 kg/ha and 11.02 percent, respectively. Texture varied from sandy loam to loamy sand.

FIGURE 16.2. The major stopover points and rangeland for the different grazing herds in high altitude areas of Thodung, Ramechap District, 1999.

The 60 herds use different grazing lands, moving by five distinct routes through the year. The stopover points of each herd are fixed. Herds following Route 1 have three stopovers, Routes 2 & 4 have four stopovers, while Routes 3 & 5 have five stopovers. Almost all herds spend 4-6 months in winter at low altitude, i.e. 2 600-2 800 m, and 2-4 months on transitional camping points at 2 900-3.200 m while going up in March-June and descending in September-October. The summer grazing season at 3 300-4 000 m is short, only 1-3 months in June-August (Figure 16.2). The 56 herders had a total of 1 279 chauris, 57 local breeding bulls and 78 goats. All the chauris were in milk and not a single sheep was kept, in contrast to the herd composition in Sailung, where sheep and fowls were kept, along with the chauris. Non-productive chauris were traded over the Tibetan border. On average, there were 22 chauris, 1 bull and 1.3 goats per herd.

To form a herd, herders go to Namche Bazaar and Khumjung in Solukhumbu and buy 12-18-month-old females, which are kept for another 18 months before mating. They calve at four years old. A chauri may be kept for 9-10 lactations, until it is 13-14 years old. Yield reduction is apparent from the ninth lactation. In general, herders sell chauris to Tibetan traders after the eighth lactation. Some herders purchase 18-month-old chauris for US$ 40-45, keep them to 6 years old, or for two lactations, then sell them for US$ 220-300 each.

The main mating season for chauris is in June-July, with calving in February-March. Again, farmers prefer calving during this period because of good returns from off-season production. With goats, three kids in two years is common in higher areas, with kidding twice a year common in the lower belt region.

Red water, mastitis and foot-andmouth diseases are seen occasionally. Kids are seriously affected by pneumonia. Local herbs are used to treat the animals. Some death of chauris occurs due to falls from steep mountains, and in such cases it is traditional to spread the cost by sharing the meat among the herders.

Sale of fresh milk is the major source of income; there are three milk collection centres of the Dairy Development Corporation and three for private dairies. Collection centres have permanent infrastructure at different altitudes, with small, permanent sheds built from local materials, made by herders at stopovers. Milk collection centres are so sited that herders have to walk a maximum of two hours to deliver milk. The lactation of a chauri is about 240-270 days. Milk yield is around 3 litre/day in April-May, rising to 4-5 litre/day in June-August. Milk yields start to fall in September and about 1-1.5 litre/day per animal is obtained in December. Milk production of a chauri during a lactation of 270 days is estimated to be 630 litre. Sale price of milk is US$ 0.22/litre and the total income averages US$ 138.97 per animal per year. The average number of chauri in a herd is 22 and so annual income from milk sale is US$ 3 060. Almost half of this is spent on management, feed and medicine, so the net profit from a herd of 22 chauri is US$1 530.

The raw milk is sold daily, and the dairy subcentres make cheese, which is mostly sold in Kathmandu; some is sold to hotels, which resell to tourist agencies in Solukhumbu or to large expeditions. There is no market problem.

Chauri hair is not commonly collected, but chamar (chauri tails) are sold for religious ceremonies. They are classified according to colour: mixed (black and white - til chamar), brown (khairo), or whitish (seto). The price is around US$ 2.94-$11.76 per unit. Whitish chamar commands the highest price, followed by mixed, with brown the cheapest. Chauri hides are used as bedding.

Up to 3 200 m, dung is collected and stored, but above that it is difficult to collect, store and transport. It is stacked on the sward to dry then powdered and carried to the bari land in sacks or thunse (bamboo baskets). Even large amounts of manure can easily be transported thus; it is put in a pit to decompose for about a month before use.

Each chauri is given 50-100 g of salt weekly. Maize flour is fed at and after calving for two weeks; it is also fed to weak animals. A chauri is given 11 kg of maize flour annually; those of Thodung are sustained by forage, maize flour and salt. Medicines are rarely used. Opinions and grazing systems differ from those of Sailung graziers. Thodung herdsmen keep no sheep because they believe that, like chauris, sheep graze deep below the surface and compete for nutritious and palatable herbage. They prefer to keep goats, which browse and do not compete with chauris for forage. They believe that sheep urine and dung have a bad smell and chauri avoid soiled areas. Goats are grazed up to 3 200 m, and above that level the herd consists of chauris only.

Feeding tree fodder is very rare for the high altitude ruminants, although leaves and twigs of Arundinaria sp. (a shrub) and Quercus semicarpifolia (a tree) are fed for about 10 days after calving. These grow up to 3 100 m; annual fodder production from a Quercus tree is 30 kg, with about 810 kg from an Arundinaria plant.

A total of 47 native and naturalized plant species were collected from Thodung. Among them were a large number of forbs (25), followed by grasses (9), shrubs (8), trees (4), only one legume, and five species that could not be identified due to poor sample quality. There were no native legumes in the pasture. Trifolium repens cv. Huia was introduced in 1974-75. It is still productive within the protected areas of milk collection centres. At some stopover places and due to rotational grazing, white clover is still growing well.

Herbage recording was done in nine randomly selected grazing areas situated at altitudes of 2 800, 3 100 and 3 300 m. Three samples of 1 m² were taken from each area. In addition to open grassland, data were also recorded from the fenced area of Thodung Milk Collection Centre. From 2 800 to 3 300 m, little difference in vegetation was found; the predominant species at 3 300 m were Danthonia sp., Pogonatherum paniceum and Anaphalis contortus. Green matter yield was 500 kg/ ha at the first cut in May-June 1999. Three cuts can be taken in the growing season of May-August, giving an average annual yield of 1.5 tonne/ha of available green forage; the yield under cages was much higher. In open grassland at 3 170 m, the dominant species were Danthonia sp., Pogonatherum paniceum, Trifolium repens and a mixture of other species; they produced almost 2.8 tonne/ha (based on an average of three cuts in a growing season). However, in the fenced area, the dominant species were Pogonatherum paniceum, Danthonia sp., Trifolium repens, Caltha palustris, Anaphalis contortus and Galium aparine, and these species yielded 7.0 tonne/ha of green matter (based on an average of three cuts in a growing season).

In the lower altitude rangelands of Derail-Yaknagi, Anaphalis contortus, Pogonatherum paniceum and Anaphalis margaritacea were dominant and yielded 2.4 tonne/ha (based on an average of three cuts in a growing season).The vegetation cover in grazing lands around 2 800 m was 40-70 percent; at 3 170 m (open grassland) it was 60-70 percent; and at 3 300 m it was 70-90 percent.

There was an acute problem of toxic plants, principally jukabikh (Anemone elongata), choto (Chlorophytum sp.) and bulu (Pieris formosa). Herders rate Chlorophytum sp. as very dangerous to all ruminants. Chauris and goats die within two hours of eating it and there is no effective local treatment; it is fatal to newly arrived chauris because they lack selectivity and graze Chlorophytum; acclimatized stock avoid it. Seemingly, young Chlorophytum sp. - which resembles halhale (Rumex nepalensis) at a younger stage - is much more dangerous than old, semidried plants. As Chlorophytum is increasing rapidly and invading some grazing lands, herders have requested assistance to eradicate it. Anemone elongata and Pieris formosa are much less toxic and rarely has an animal died after eating them, but they cause bloat and indigestion which lasts for at least three days, resulting in decreased milk production.

The condition of grazing is poor to medium. At low altitudes (2 600-2 800 m), where animals stay almost six months, overgrazing is common. There is much more pressure on grazing lands up to 2 700 m because these areas are also grazed regularly by the livestock of a lower belt. Grazing lands at this altitude in Sailung are close to the villages and therefore are extensively used by water buffaloes and cattle in summer, up to 2 830 m. In winter, chauris are brought to lower altitudes because of snow cover at the higher elevations. Vegetation cover of lower grazing lands (2 600-3 400 m) is 60-70 percent. The degree of utilization is over 90 percent to Thodung (Routes 1 & 2), Phokate (Route 3), Koshi Kharka (Route 4) and Serding (Route 5). Due to favourable climatic condition, easy access for materials and easy stay, herds stay for long periods (8-10 months).

Grazing lands above 3 400 to 4 000 m are not overgrazed and contain a palatable native plant called tapakir (Caltha palustris). The degree of utilization is less than 50 percent. Due to the harsh climate, difficult access for materials and difficult living conditions, herds remain in this belt for a shorter period (2-3 months). There is no problem of watering points in the major grazing lands. The VDC has helped the herders by constructing trails and drinking water facilities, and charges herders an annual contribution of US$7.35-14.7 per herd.

Constraints and suggestions

Major constraints identified

• Toxic plants Invasion of the grazing lands by Jukabih (Anemone elongata), Chlorophytum sp. and Pieris formosa is a major concern of the herders in Thodung. Occasional death due to Chlorophytum has occurred in new stock, and its instant fatal effect has led to economic loss in chauri herds.

• Overgrazing There is an overgrazing problem below 2 900 m, where buffaloes from lowland villages also graze to 2 830 m.

• Low productivity of pasture Although there are large areas of grazing, its productivity is poor. Absence of legumes and low productivity of native species could be due to lack of proper protection coupled with overexploitation (1 200 chauris), resulting in loss of soil fertility. Regrowth of the grasses is poor due to overstocking.

• Animal diseases Red water, mastitis, foot-and-mouth disease, and pneumonia are the main diseases.

Suggestions by herders

• An effective initiative should be taken by government to eradicate toxic plants, and Village Development Committees should bring this the notice of District Offices.

• An orientation programme should be launched or training organized to create awareness among the herders towards finding ways to improve and sustain rangeland productivity.

• A study should be carried out on the introduction of high yielding native species, as well as improved lowfertility- demanding forages, applying an Integrated Research and Development Approach, in which system extension workers, scientists and users share equally all responsibilities.

• The herders should receive training in animal health care, in parallel with introducing an effective animal health treatment programme through District Level Offices of the Department of Livestock Services (DLS).

• There should be clear demarcation between forest and grazing land. The grazing should be managed by users’ groups, actively supported by the Department of Livestock Services and the Nepal Agricultural Research Council, for better use and higher productivity.