III. Methodological and procedural guidelines for carrying out systemic analysis with a gender perspective

This chapter introduces the elements, conceptual guidelines and tools that derive from the implementation of the project GCP/NIC/020/NOR in Nicaragua and that may assist in the formulation of other rural development projects. Such concepts and tools emerge from a thorough review of the achievements and bottlenecks of the Nicaraguan experience, and the general guidelines of the models introduced at the beginning of this document.

The appraisals referred to so far aim to identify the prime characteristics of the socio-economic and gender situation of the target areas. Their objective is to identify the main issues in the communities where project activities will take place and to formulate relevant recommendations.

The methodology used to achieve the agreed objective consists in combining the systemic and gender approaches when conducting appraisals at the level of the municipality, community or farm family production unit. In each of these levels, the methodology reviews gender roles in production, reproduction and organized social life, highlighting the division of labour by sex, access to resources, participation in management and decision-making, and needs and priorities as perceived by the people involved. The systemic and gender approaches feed into one another at various stages of the appraisal process. The analysis is carried out in three successive stages:

• a review of the situation in the microregion or municipality;

• a review of the community;

• a review of farm family production units (FFPUs).

At the level of the municipality, a rapid socio-economic survey is conducted. This is followed by a more in-depth analysis of the agrarian system only where strictly necessary. The aim of this exercise is to learn about the basic aspects of the historical, agro-ecological and socio-economic characteristics of the area, in addition to current trends and dynamics. It also provides a basis for the selection of communities for subsequent analysis.

At the community level, the appraisal entails several methodological steps that analyse the local history and geography, and the needs and priorities expressed by local inhabitants. The farming systems and organizations of local farmers are reviewed and examined.

Knowledge of the historical dynamics of the environmental, economic and social situation is fundamental to understanding current conditions and identifying future trends.

The following diagram illustrates the course of action of the process.

Diagram of appraisals at the levels of the municipality and region

3.1 Rapid agricultural and socio-economic survey at the microregional or municipality level^[15]

The purpose of the rapid agricultural and socio-economic survey is to obtain an overview of the area with its principal environmental, agricultural and socio-economic characteristics. This results in a general description of the territorial and social situation of the municipality or microregion.

3.1.1 Methodological steps and main variables

The result of this characterization is a global frame of reference, comprising homogeneous zones in terms of development issues (referred to as "zoning"), an overview of the social structure and situation of rural women, and the identification of past and present trends. These three aspects are examined on the basis of a restricted number of variables, which are selected according to the most relevant experiences.

Zoning

The objective of zoning is to identify a number of areas that are relatively homogeneous, but sufficiently different from one another in terms of agroecological and socio-economic aspects, and the problematic of rural development. This exercise identifies the comparative advantages of the various zones and, most important, makes it possible to recognize the broad outlines of the major development problems or constraints faced by local inhabitants. In practice, zoning is a mapping exercise carried out by superimposing maps or sketches listing some of the most important variables related to agricultural and socioeconomic aspects.

Agro-ecological and socio-economic aspects are the two main categories reviewed.

Agro-ecological aspects. The objective is to characterize the environment in terms of its physical and ecological specificities and the manner in which its natural resources (such as soil) are exploited. Available data on the relevant variables are collected and quantified or reproduced pictorially in the form of maps of the geographical area.

The main variables are:

• physical components;

• biological components of the environment (ecosystems);

• land use.

Physical components

- Climate (mainly rainfall, followed by temperature).

- Geology, especially topography and local soil types (with numerical data on the relief of the land; land by topographies - flat, rolling, and gully; soil types; and the agricultural production constraints inherent to the topography and soil type).

- Hydrographic picture of the municipality: watershed (or watersheds) to which the community belongs; network of rivers, torrents and sources of water; perhaps presenting data on low water, volume of flow, etc. (if the region is relatively arid, data on irrigation or potential for irrigation are important aspects).

Biological components and ecosystems

- Natural or spontaneous vegetation: primary and secondary forest, stubble, dominant species, etc., and relative areas of importance.

- Cultivated plants: dominant annuals and perennials, dominant composition of herbaceous species, natural and cultivated pasture and relative areas of importance.

- Fauna: this is particularly relevant if hunting and fishing add significantly to the diet and/or income of the rural population.

- Ecosystems: general types of ecosystem(s) in the municipality, and/or major ecosystems present, their distribution within the municipal territory, recent trends (deforestation, altered river beds, problems of contamination and pollution, etc.).

Land use

- Identify the types and relative importance of the main agroecological uses in the area, such as shifting cultivation, slash and burn of secondary forest or stubble, livestock production on natural pasture (with or without migration of flocks and herds), fruit trees and other types of plantation, peri-urban orchards, crop rotation, crops with fallow periods (and average length of fallow period), floodplain crops, etc. Using this data to define rural land use for a preliminary attempt at zoning, by superimposing the available maps.

Socio-economic aspects. The objective is to characterize society and the local economy, identify the principal components found in its decisive factors and how they interrelate based on the relevant indicators. Sources for such analysis include background documentation, institutions, key informants, etc.

The main variables are:

• population;

• infrastructure;

• land tenure;

• supply of inputs and consumer goods, and marketing of farm products;

• local development programmes and projects;

• civil organizations and religious groups;

• local leadership.

Population

- Identify the general demographic characteristics of the zone, with particular attention to location and population scattering or concentration, and obtain basic data on interethnic relationships and their impact on development issues where different ethnic groups coexist. This information can be synthesized in a population chart.

Infrastructure

- Gather basic data relating to existing social infrastructure: health care structures (hospitals, clinics, health centres, hospital beds and doctors per inhabitant), education (schools and colleges, extent of schooling), public services (rural electrification, drinking-water and transport - road networks, public transport, etc.), industries present in or having an impact on the zone, pick-up and supply centres, etc. The data can be summarized in an infrastructure chart.

Land tenure

- Compile data on the number of agricultural holdings, the major forms of land tenure and the proportion of each, the stratification of landownership by area, changes introduced through agrarian reform, and trends concerning access to land. Compare and combine these data with the major categories of agricultural production for a preliminary categorization of farmers.

Supply of inputs and consumer goods, and marketing of agricultural products

- Examine the links between the local population and local, regional, national and export markets. Review the conditions of access to inputs and consumer goods and marketing of products, bearing in mind that these are decisive factors in farmers' decisions concerning what to produce, because they vary according to the type of farmer, the zone and so forth. Specify the baseline prices for the main farm products and the relative prices of the various items produced, and examine how these factors affect local agrarian trends. The aim is to obtain an approximation of market trends in the zone, quantifying the main flows of trade and verifying their impact on farm production and on the socioeconomic behaviour of agricultural producers and their families.

Local development programmes and projects

- Knowledge on development programmes and projects in the area is fundamental, including their objectives, scope of operations and the extent of their human and financial resources. An appraisal by the local authorities on the impact of these programmes and projects on the local situation should also be included.

Religious groups and organizations within society

- The aim is to ascertain the vitality and initiatives of local organizations. This requires an inventory of unions or other organizations, religious and cultural groups, associations, NGOs, etc. operating in the area.

Local leadership

- It is important to identify local organization leaders and their sphere of action and to become familiar with local opinions, in order to establish contacts with local leaders, learn about the local changes they hope to bring about and secure their involvement in the pre-project investigation work and, later, in the project itself.

By zoning, broad areas are identified, each presenting its own development issues, in accordance with the criteria based on the most significant variables. There is no standard formula for this step of the methodology, as it is the result of the appraisals and discussions prompted by the hands-on experience of the team. Zoning will lead to the selection of the project target communities for the project.

General status of women in the municipality

The objective is to obtain a general overview of gender relationships and the status of women in the municipality, based on a select number of criteria.

The main variables are land tenure and access to land for women, living conditions in the family (marital status, gender roles, shared workloads), productive and agricultural activities, reproductive activities, off-farm activities, other income-generating activities, profile of relationships within the family, organizations in which women participate, and project activities that benefit women.

Access to land and land tenure

- Acknowledge and quantify, where possible, women's access to land and their situation with respect to land tenure. The following questions should be answered: To what extent, how, by what means (as groups, as individuals) and at what point in time have women been the beneficiaries of agrarian reform? Equally relevant is to collect baseline data on the amount of land involved, its location, titling and eventual problems involved in titling. Subsequently, the question of group ownership and titling in the group and family context should be explored.

Family living conditions

- Qualitative data must be gathered on aspects such as profiles of typical rural families, marital arrangements, the status of women with respect to men, gender roles, responsibilities and behaviour common in the area, including the collection of data on the proportion of women-headed households.

Agricultural activities

- Present a general description of the types of activities that women carry out, define the relative importance of such activities, and evaluate to what extent women are independent (take decision in autonomy or with partner, resource management, use of derived benefits).

Reproductive activities

- General descriptive data (including qualitative and, if possible, quantitative data) are required on the various types of reproductive activities that are common in the area, including the general conditions and constraints of such activities, and the relevant division of labour. Concrete aspects for consideration are the supply of water, fuelwood or other type of fuel for cooking, food preparation, cleaning and repairs, care and education of children, and so forth. Quantitative data can perhaps be found in gender analysis surveys or appraisals made in the area.

Off-farm productive activities

- Identify the types of off-farm productive activities (such as industrial, craft or tertiary sector activities), their relative importance and the average income derived from such activities.

Other income-generating activities

- Sale of labour outside the FFPU (day work on other farms, housework in other households, whether seasonal or permanent), the sale of goods produced by the women, such as: prepared foods, craftwork, etc. The impact of such activities on the family income should be evaluated (major, medium or marginal impact).

Profile of relations within the family

- Give a qualitative description of the dominant patterns of culture and behaviour.

Organizations with female participation

- Identify the unions, cultural, religious, community and other types of organizations with female membership, the extent of women's involvement, female leadership, etc., using numerical data where possible.

RAPID APPRAISAL AT THE MICROREGIONAL OR MUNICIPALITY LEVEL

Development activities that benefit women

- Determine the various types of projects/programmes that have an impact on women's situation, identifying their objectives and their human and financial resources.

The purpose of this analysis should not be to compile an exhaustive database, but rather to utilize qualitative data where quantitative data are unobtainable. This phase is important because it is a survey, and therefore the extent of the analysis of the variables will be tailored to the amount of detail required.

Historical trends

The objective is to characterize the zone by means of a general analytical summary of the recent history of the area, highlighting the most relevant aspects with respect to local development issues. The major trends, constraints and prospects that have a significant bearing on local development issues must be identified, determining the changing picture of rural women's situation within the municipality. In concrete terms, a brief agrarian overview of the zone is necessary, focusing on the most significant trends and highlighting women's access to public services, in this particular context.

The main variables are a brief history of the area, migratory movements, ecosystem transformations, changes in land tenure, public service trends, and changes in women's roles and gender relations.

3.1.2 Methodological guidelines and tools

The four types of tools used for these appraisals are the collection of baseline data and map-making, field trips, interviews with key informants, and presentation of the data to local authorities, with feedback from them.

Obtaining and processing the baseline data on the relevant variables is the result of an interactive process combining the four methodological tools. The weight and relative usefulness of each is determined on a case-by-case basis, depending on the existing sources of information and the depth of detail desired. A comparative analysis of the documentation obtained from these different means will broaden the discussion and identify local issues.

Collecting baseline data and map-making

The analytical work begins with a review of secondary sources and the processing of available qualitative and quantitative data (monographs, university papers, development project studies, mission reports, scientific papers, etc.), which are obtained from a systematic search of all possible sources.^[16].

An in-depth zoning project requires detailed official maps of the area, as well as recent aerial photographs and satellite images, where available. In this case (particularly for appraisals of agrarian systems and/or strict zoning), specific maps can be produced to compensate data gaps or to summarize the existing data.

If instead the intention is to elaborate rough zoning, it will be sufficient to employ an official map that includes data that are relative to studied variables by using graphs, symbols and different coloured overlays. In both cases, the aim is to superimpose maps drawn to the same scale but covering different topics in order to visualize the correlations between the socio-economic and agro-ecological variables (see summary table on Rapid appraisal at the microregional or municipality level, page 34). Depending on the issues that have emerged, the project team delineates geographical areas that face similar internal challenges. Demarcation into separate zones is based on areas that are different from their neighbours. It should be reiterated that first-hand experience and a case-by-case approach offer the best basis for selecting the criteria or cross-criteria for zoning. In some cases such criteria could include population density or abrupt changes in the topography. In other cases, they could be the type of farm production crossed with the social structure (e.g. intensive livestock breeding, smallholding labour reserve, etc.). Help from key local informants and the knowledge and objectivity of the team carrying out the appraisal are essential for the characterization.

This study requires the identification of historical trends and analysis of the evolution of reviewed factors, as well as a visualization of possible changes in the maps.

Subsequent adjustments can be made to the zoning, based on observations derived from field visits, interviews with key informants, and discussions with community groups in the feedback phase of the activities.

Field visits

By crossing the different areas defined in the zoning map, it is possible to trace various routes, and field trips should be chosen carefully to observe and analyse the heterogeneous features of the zone.

The estimated average time for a field trip is from half to a whole day, and field trip routes are based on the route traced on the map. On the basis of what is observed during the trip, notes are taken and a general outline of the landscape is traced out. The aim is to obtain a picture and an analysis of the local landscape, selecting specific historical elements as well as social and ecological trends, and aiming to build a first understanding of its components and interrelations. The agricultural practices of its inhabitants and the basis of their development are identified in this way. It is suggested that these trips be carried out in teams with two or three local people and key informants, who are chosen for their familiarity with the municipality, their ability to explain local history and present local perceptions, and their capacity to answer questions related to particular crops, abandoned houses, the advantages of a particular farm practice, etc. To complement the observations, short informal interviews are carried out with people met along the way (farmers, women and traders) on the issues or questions that arise during the trip.

The field trip is the first stage in understanding local issues (which is useful for verifying the information identified during the previous stage) and their relationships with the various ways of managing the environment and valorizing the ecosystems. It is of paramount importance to understand how local farmers utilize, with the means available to them, the various natural resources of their environment.

The setting must be read gradually, i.e. first an overview or general outlook must be obtained, and the various zones with their component parts should be introduced later. Initially, it is necessary to observe the main features of the landscape (highlands, hills, valleys etc.), the major plant formations (wooded areas, pastures [rangelands], perennial and annual crops and crop rotation), the arrangement of the cultivated land parcels (shape and size, contour ploughed or not), the types of crops, the importance and age of crop residues and fallow lands, the quality of the grasslands and the kinds and number of livestock reared. These observations should lead to a number of assumptions regarding the different forms of exploitation. Such assumptions ought to be confirmed or changed during the subsequent interviews with other informants.

During the field trip, a first outline or synthetic drawing is produced to be used as a visual tool for memory and analysis.

Interviews with key informants

The primary objective of this type of interview is to supply data on: a) modified farming practices; b) in accordance with the available means of production, the ecosystem's potential; and c) the exchange relations (particularly economic) through which farmers carry out their activities - types of agricultural practices, productive potential of the zone, marketing networks, prices, land tenure, credit, debts, etc.

The selected key informants or witnesses of the land transformations are often older, experienced people who are able to report on the local history, hold some type of responsibility in the present or past, and have relevant influence in the social and farming sectors. The surveys - based on the profiles of those already interviewed - attempt to uncover the causes of the major transformations of local society and ecosystems. The topics covered are changes in population, crops, livestock, farming techniques and tools, the economic and social infrastructure, commercial and financial activities, land tenure, the ecosystem (erosion, deforestation, soil conservation, droughts and floods, etc.). Particular reference is given to gender relations and to the role played by women in the different social spheres. Regarding other organizations, interviews with their leaders are fundamental.

The joint work of all the informants, the municipality's history in terms of agricultural trends, the gender roles and the position of women, and any recent changes are reconstructed. In this way, there is a gradual perception of mechanisms that could be key aspects in originating transformations and innovations in agricultural production and techniques, the local pattern of development, and gender roles.

Presenting the results and feedback from local bodies

When the rapid appraisal is ready, the project team presents the results to the municipal authorities and bodies, including some of the key informants. During the oral presentation (illustrated by maps, diagrams, summary tables containing the basic data, etc.), a discussion will cover the conclusions reached, ameliorating the appraisal with any eventual corrections, new information or additional comments.

One of the main objectives of the feedback session is to discuss the selection of communities where the detailed community and FFPU appraisals will be conducted. The selection criteria are presented and discussed with the municipal authorities, and the proposed communities are reviewed with people who are highly familiar with them.

3.2 Systemic and gender analysis at the community level

The proposed methodology contains elements drawn from various schools of thought on rural development, including the systemic, the gender and development and the participatory development approaches.

Other assumptions for the application of this methodology are that: (a) development agents have basic background knowledge of the systemic approach, and view participation as a means of acquiring and managing autonomy and decision-making and gender as a social structure that defines the participation of women and men in the systems operation; (b) development agents will train the team liasing with the community in the use of techniques and will form part of the work team; (c) the groups of women and men with whom the team will work have some form of organization and make up a unit that can be defined as a community;^[17] and (d) there is backing for development programmes within the institutional sphere, as well as within the official local, regional and national ones.

The length of the data gathering process varies, and depends on many factors. It is worth mentioning the complexity and heterogeneity of the social, economic and agronomic realities of the microregion, the extent to which rural families are organized, the degree of commitment of the work team, the time available for the work team, and the farm families targeted for direct participation, etc.

Selection of the target area

Negotiations at the government, municipal and community levels will lead to the selection of the target area. Such contacts help to identify organizations with representation at various levels, and especially to gain an understanding of the general situation of farmers' organizations, particularly those with female participation.

These discussions also facilitate access to data that are already on record, and they also obtain a sort of initial consent or collaboration for the actual appraisal. Various criteria come into play in choosing the target area: prime consideration is given to communities where the population is already organized to some extent and where certain government bodies and/or NGOs are already active.

SYSTEMIC AND GENDER ANALYSIS AT THE COMMUNITY LEVEL

3.2.1 Methodological steps, main variables, guidelines and tools

The following describes the five-step process to carry out a systemic analysis conducted at the community level. The principal variables and tools available at each step of the process are also described.

Establishing contact with the community and the contact persons and forming a local work team

Once the target area has been selected, the leaders and representatives of the various organizations and development programmes present in the community should be approached in order to identify the groups of women and men who will act as contact persons linking the project to the local population.

The contact persons should have a reputation for being responsible and community service-oriented. They should also have time to carry out the given tasks. Reading and writing are almost essential characteristics, although use of this criterion is effectively a form of segregation, which could bias against the community representation.

• Forming and training the work team:

  - A small group is created of three to five people who will become contact persons (the number depends on the size of the community). This will become the work team, which in collaboration with the project team will facilitate the appraisal process. The work team will require an introductory training period that includes an explanation of the appraisal's objectives and of the subsequent activities, which follow stages, as well as use of the tools for each stage. After this, the lessons learned at each stage of the appraisal and project are immediately put into practice.

• Gender awareness workshops: Concurrently with the selection process for the area, the creation of the work team and the onset of the project, gender workshops should be held at the following levels:

  - government and municipal level, for representatives of the various organizations active at these levels;

  - community level, for community leaders, the work team, technical people working in the various projects, and women and men from the community who participate in the team.

The specific content of the gender workshops will vary in accordance with the level and characteristics of the audience addressed. However, the principal objective is to raise awareness on the importance of incorporating a gender perspective into interpretations of the current situation and development projects as a mechanism to promote social, political and economic equality within a community.

Baseline agrosocio-economic data on the community ("learning about our community")

This stage complements the gathering and analysis of agrosocio-economic variables of the territory and community history, circuits of the area, interviews with key informants and the gathering of information from the following means.

Community map. This is a map of the community, which is prepared by a select group of women and men familiar with the area and features the most important aspects of the community (e.g. communities, hamlets, services, etc.). This tool makes it possible to locate the areas where women farmers predominate, and to place the community within its natural setting. The community map is also helpful in delineating the field visits for trips, in line with the necessary data and the objectives. The community map can subsequently be compared with other available maps (geological, official, natural resources, and land use), in order to draw new conclusions. Micro-zoning at the community level, using the same methods as for the municipal appraisal, is also useful.

Transect. The transect is a section map of the community area, designed to illustrate the heterogeneity of the terrain and landscape, the economic and social conflicts and the various types of farming practices. During field walks with two or more work team members who are familiar with the community, informal interviews with people met along the way will supplement the data collected. At the end of the walk, the participants, with the assistance of the facilitator, will prepare a pictorial map, or transect. The purpose of this tool is to depict the following: a) a brief description of the agricultural zone, including soil types, slopes, potential land use, etc.; b) the way women and men relate to their environment, through direct observation and interviews, locating the use of resources such as water and fuelwood and existing potential resources; and c) the general situation of farming systems with female participation. Other tools such as natural resource maps can also provide useful data.

Sample matrix

HISTORICAL PROFILE OF COMMUNITY

Historical profile. The work team provides a summary of the local history going back some generations and featuring major events. A summarized matrix may be used for this. This exercise provides a chance to discuss the causes of each change, and offers an overview of the sequence of development for the area studied and its inhabitants.

Social and gender characterization of the families in the community ("getting to know each other")

Variables. Relationships and roles of gender and social conflicts.

Instruments. Self-stratification through a simple survey based on appraisal cards.

• Self-stratification. The purpose of this exercise is to identify the different social groups found in the community. A table or matrix, which lists all the families in the community on the left-hand side, can be utilized for this exercise, or a series of cards listing the relevant information. A selected group of inhabitants is required to outline what they believe to be the useful criteria for defining the members of the community (this might be male or female heads of household, land tenure, etc.). This information will then be utilized to characterize each of the local families. Some basic general criteria for a rough approximation of the typology of farm families will emerge at this stage. A census of families in female-headed households can be obtained, as can an initial picture of the elements that differentiate farming systems as seen from the standpoint of the farmers themselves.

Sample self-stratification matrix

Mz stands for “manzana”, a Central American land measure. One Mz = 0.7 ha.

Self-stratification is a participatory method that facilitates an analysis of the social differences within the community, based on how community members perceive themselves. This is not a sociological review, but rather a group exercise in perception and evaluation of the existing social differences within the community. In some cases, a prior self-stratification workshop, including a brief sociological presentation, can later be added to the rest of the information as a useful tool.

• Simple survey with appraisal cards. This is a participatory survey, based on the use of appraisal cards (see annex), during which a select group of local women and men from the work team gather data on each family, including demographic, farm production and other data related to the roles of women in the area under review.

The results of the simple survey and self-stratification are used to define the major categories of FFPUs in the area and the number of families in each category. This process also identifies farming systems in the community. Three major groups or categories are normally selected:

- FFPUs with very little land and insufficient income to meet the basic family needs. The survival of these FFPUs depends on other income-generating activities, such as salaries, pensions, commercial or craft activities and seasonal migration;

- FFPUs where the farming systems utilize all available family labour and meet the basic needs without having to resort to off-farm income-generating activities;

- FFPUs where the use of non-family labour is crucial to output. These may be managed by the owner or by a hired supervisor and are entrepreneurial in nature.

Sample community organizations matrix

Characterization of the organizations present in the community ("our organizations")

Table or matrix of the organizational structure in the community.

• Table of the organizational structure in the community. A matrix or table is used to summarize the data. A representative group of local women and men (working together or separated by sex)^[18] will locate on this matrix all the organizations, institutions and projects present in the community, discussing their work, any problems that may have arisen in the course of it, the possible causes, and possible solutions. Depending on the extent of the organizational conflicts in the community, an open discussion of all topics is organized, or individual opinions can be expressed on cards for later presentation during the discussions.

Analysis of farming systems

General instruments: a) typology of farming systems; b) analysis of men's, women's and children's contributions to the system; c) global systemic analysis and farming systems workshops.

a) Typology of farming systems

Instruments. Summary of agro-economic observations and data; and preparation of typology.

- Data summary and preparation of typology. Differences arise within the community (or within each zone of the territory where a community has been zoned) concerning use of the environment. These differences are the result of local agro-ecological variations and socio-economic disparities among farmers. The major categories of agricultural holdings and farming systems will emerge from a review of these gaps.

Construction of a typology facilitates an understanding of the social, technical and economic diversity of the community - its natural resources, specific constraints, practices, logical sequences, patterns of change, etc. The specific issues and problems of the typologies identified can also be discerned, as well as their interrelatedness (common problems in their strategies and life styles, patterns of accumulation or, from a technical standpoint, patterns of diversification, similar constraints such as weeds, water shortages, soil acidity and insufficient genetic potential, etc.). The typology can be used as a starting point for recommendations tailored to the specificities of each problem encountered.

Depending on the level of disaggregation required from the analysis, and on the economic and social complexity of the area, several types of farming systems may be identified with significant differences among them. Four to five are usually ideal, as this avoids an overdetailed and unnecessary analysis.

Summarizing the data entails understanding the pattern of accumulation of the farm production units, and the substantial differences among farming systems. The first approximation of the general typologies of farming units is the result of the self-stratification and simple survey (see Social and gender characterization of the families in the community, page 43) and familiarity with technical farming types present in the community. This helps the preparation of a preliminary outline and a draft typology, by trial and error.

The methodology and criteria for preparing a typology vary on a case-by-case basis. While the criteria for differentiation vary, the most common criteria employed are the economic size of the farm production unit, the amount of labour available and utilized, the opportunities for off-farm work and income generation, the components of fixed capital (buildings, investments, equipment, etc.), marketing conditions, land tenure, the dominant type of farm production (basic grains, coffee, livestock, etc.) and the sex and social status of the head of the farm production unit (single woman or man, one-parent or two-parents).

The validity of the draft typology, and a clearer picture of the various types of system, is derived from a simple sampling of some of the farm production units - one or two for each type of system - which is not necessarily based on statistical criteria. The objective is to obtain indicative data through case studies, examining subsystems (cropping and livestock systems, FFPU inventories) without trying to produce statistically exact data.

The case studies, which must be exhaustive, analyse the technical and economic aspects of the farm production units, including their respective cropping and livestock subsystems (see variables in the summary table). It is important to include cases to represent all typologies, considering the gender differences.

Case studies make it possible to adjust the elaborated draft typology where necessary, by introducing amendments based on the observations made in each case. At this stage, the categories are verified and typologies are added or eliminated, depending on whether the contrasts are strong, marginal or insufficiently represented. The definition of categories must be reviewed in terms of the gender variable in order to obtain a clear picture of the logical sequence of farm production.

When the case studies are completed and the major types of farming systems have been recorded, the number of families belonging to each type must be counted, determining the number of female-headed households in each. In this way, an idea of women's relative weight in the community as a whole, and of their specific situation, is obtained.

b) Men's, women's and children's contributions to the farming system

Variables: each family member's responsibilities and work in the spheres of production and reproduction in each farming system.

Instruments: workday; technical itineraries; timetable of activities; access, control and decision-making in relation to the resources of the FFPU; global systems flow chart. Each family member's contribution to the functioning of the farming system is analysed for each type of system identified. This exercise may either be carried out in the case studies, or be participatory. In the latter case, women and men meet separately for the initial discussion. Women's, men's and children's contributions are to be considered an integral part of the farming system in both the productive and reproductive spheres. In contrast to economic evaluations, which focus on productive activities, the utilization of tools such as the workday and technical itineraries clearly reveals the contribution of women and men, broken down into different tasks. A plenary meeting follows to discuss the contribution of each family member to each type of farming system. This meeting can also be used as an opportunity to report back to the community and to open the general debate on the community's main problems.

Different instruments (matrices) are used at meetings where women and men hold separate group discussions on a series of aspects concerning their respective reproductive and productive contributions to the farming system.^[19]

- Workday. This is a matrix in which each group separately identifies and records its daily work. Each of the tasks performed throughout the day is listed, with the (approximate) time spent on each activity and any help received.

- Annual work timetable. In this matrix, each group works separately to identify and record aspects of farm production and reproductive work that are carried out on a monthly basis and throughout the year. This tool highlights critical times and allows women and men farmers to explain how they use their parcels and backyards, how activities are distributed, and how the means of production are employed, including the labour force. The data derived from this tool can be represented by bar charts, thus facilitating comparisons between the average workdays for reproductive and farm production activities, per month and disaggregated by sex.

- Technical itineraries. These are made up of various matrices in which each group working separately identifies the fieldwork, tools, inputs, workdays, and roles disaggregated by sex as regards on-farm activities (cropping and livestock), off-farm activities (sale of labour, trade, crafts) and reproductive or domestic activities (fetching water, collecting fuelwood, child care, buying and preparing meals, education of children, etc.).

Sample matrix of a woman's workday for activities additional to those of the farming system

Sample matrix of the annual work timetable

- Access to and control of resources and decision-making. In this matrix, after group discussions, each group separately lists the various aspects concerning land parcel and/or barnyard output, including infrastructure, services, and benefits deriving from outputs and from resources in general. The goal is to identify resource owners or other people who exercise direct control over resources, those using resources, and those deciding on their use.

Sample technical itinerary

FARM PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES (2 Mz of first season maize)

* t = time
* d/p = workdays per person
Note: a similar itinerary is used for livestock production.

Technical itinerary

PRODUCTIVE AND DOMESTIC ACTIVITIES

* t = time

Basic data on off-farm activities

* t = time

Sample matrix for access to and control of resources and decision-making

ACCESS/CONTROL/RESOURCES DECISION-MAKING

M = men; W = women; S = son; D = daughter.

- Systems flowchart. This is a diagrammatic representation of a farming system. A flowchart is made for each type of farming system. Each group, working separately, locates the various components of the system on a graph (productive, reproductive and off-farm components). Different-coloured arrows (colour-coded in order of importance) are used to rank the relative importance that female and male farmers give to each component. In addition to making it easier to see how women and men participants perceive the linkages among these components, this also highlights their priorities with respect to income and expenditure within the farming system.

c) Global economic analysis of farming systems, and farming systems workshops

Instruments. Matrix to calculate the income and expenditure of the systems and for reporting on the data.

- Global analysis of farm family production units and subsystems. This process consists of creating rough balance sheets comparing incomes and expenditures for each type of farming system. The first step is to calculate total income from each type of farming system, adding all partial entries concerning cropping, livestock, off-farm activities, etc. The next step is to identify the "system outlay", by separating farm production-related costs from nonproductive activities related to the family, such as food and other similar items (two matrixes should be created - see samples on page 50). The economic results of all activities listed are subsequently consolidated in a chart, thus encouraging discussions on the reproductive level of the family. The context provides an opportunity for discussions of the technical and economic issues and the various survival strategies adopted by the families in the community, for each farming system. To study the economy of a rural production unit, in particular, in the case illustrated in this document the criterion of gross margin (income and expenditure) is used for the analysis, as this simple benchmark is often adequate for the purpose. Simplified calculations are advisable as the main point of interest is the relation between inputs and outputs of the farming system, and its effects on the quality and livelihood of the family.

- Reporting on the data. This consists of a plenary meeting with participants from the earlier meetings and other guests from the community. The data gathered by means of the aforementioned instruments and on which the earlier group discussions were based (organizational presence, technical itineraries, and so forth) are presented and reviewed. One of the main purposes of this plenary is to report formally to the community as a whole on the data collected during the process, highlighting the relative (productive or reproductive) contributions of each family member to the efficient operation of the farming system as a whole. The results extracted from the different groups are compared. This should bring out the inequalities and divergences of opinion at any given time for any specific topic of discussion (minority opinions are no less important than those that are shared). It is also important to stress the existing integration of the various components of the farming system, such as the soil's uptake of nutrients resulting from a particular crop, the use of animal wastes for organic fertilizer, etc. This meeting will also present and discuss the economic calculations of income and expenditure for the various farming systems.

In the earlier tables, which emerged from the experience in Nicaragua, the basic criterion for evaluating income is the gross margin income plus off-farm income. This reflects the case of a poor FFPU that owns the land it cultivates and has little fixed capital (thus has minimum depreciation costs), does not use credit (thus pays no interest on loans), has no direct subsidies, does not pay taxes, etc. Experience has shown that this is frequently the most practical concept for making a basic analysis of a FFPU. For a more detailed analysis and for comparing different types of farming systems, it is advisable to consider indicators such as gross margin per unit of human labour or gross margin per hectare.

Sample global analysis (simplified economic calculations based on gross margin and off-farm income) for each type of farming system

Farming systems expenditure

Expenses for feeding a family (six people)

Additional family expenses

Income (gross margin) for farming system

Farming system income from 1 Mz of late-season sorghum

Summary of farming systems income and expenditure

If instead the intention is to determine the agricultural income of the household (this is a strict necessity for an economic analysis of agricultural holdings in general, and entrepreneurial holdings in particular), certain requirements such as the capital depreciation, payment of bank interest, direct subsidies, taxes, rental payments for land, etc. must be brought into the equation. In this case, ad hoc tables must be drawn up to include the calculations presented below for the various types of farming systems.

After creating charts for each system, several general comparative matrices of the different systems are crafted, in tune with the selected criteria (for this example: the total gross margin plus off-farm activities; in other cases, the agricultural income of the family unit can be used). In order to calculate the workforce productivity and the soil productivity the gross margin per workday or per worker and the gross margin per hectare can be used. The systems can be compared on the basis of the synthesis of these data. It is particularly advisable to compare the economic reproduction capacity with the technical and farming patterns deriving from it.

Community problems and plan of action

An appraisal process, such as this one, provides the basis for the formulation of a participatory community-wide plan of action. Nonetheless, it is necessary to organize subsequent workshops for the planning of strategies and concrete actions that are based on the available resources, and not on false hopes, which will not be satisfied by the proposed action and will spoil relations between the project team and the community.

Instruments. Organization of community problems into a hierarchy; analysis and discussion of priority problems; and plan of action.

• ierarchic organization of community problems. The participants meet^[20] to analyse the most deeply felt community problems in the farming, reproductive, off-farm, social and organizational spheres. It is important to ensure equal gender participation and that the issues identified by women are not drowned in the plenary discussions. When the problems have been identified, the next step is to discuss and carry out the organization into hierarchy (first in group sessions and then in plenary sessions). Cards with numbers from 1 to 3 can be used, for example, with each participant, woman or man, given three votes. These discussions will also lead participants to explore the real causes of each problem. To rank the problems in order of importance, the key indicators for each need to be identified by the community.^[21]. If the existing information for each indicator is insufficient, the decision of who, when and how to collect these data should be taken. The data on problem analysis and problem ranking are then summarized in matrices, as shown below.

• A lesson learned from experience. It is advisable to tackle community problems directly without any prior discussion of individual needs, demands and aspirations. It is essential to define immediately the key indicators for each priority, as these will help to focus on the desired possible results, whose definition will serve as guides for monitoring and evaluation of the process.

• Community action plan by objective/ problem. The first step in this process is to develop the concept of community planning with the female and male participants. Previously defined priority problems and their respective indicators are subsequently compared with the interests of the community and the characteristics/real potentials of the project.

The following is a sample summary table for the various farming systems, using the criterion of "gross margin plus off-farm income".

CONSOLIDATED RESULTS OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF FARMING SYSTEMS

Family reproduction level = system inputs vs. family requirement.

The community action plan clearly identifies the objectives pursued, tackling each particular issue, identifying the activities associated with each objective^[22] and specifying the who is responsible, the time (when), the strategies and methods of action (how), and the necessary resources, all of which is regrouped in a specific work time schedule. The framework for identifying possible solutions provides the opportunity to discuss self-management with the team as the backbone for self-determination, autonomy and equity in a development process.

Sample matrix of community problems and priority issues

COMMUNITY PROBLEM RANKING

M = men's votes; W = women's votes.

PRIORITY PROBLEMS

Analysis and discussions

Sample matrix by problem ranking to create the community action plan

COMMUNITY ACTION PLAN

Problems:

Objectives: