Increased productivity of water depends on its improved use. In turn, this requires three groups of actors to perform effectively: (i) farmers need to improve the use of other resources to complement improved water use; (ii) those concerned with marketing need to facilitate the best use of products from farms; and (iii) governments need to create a framework that encourages the other actors to play their roles. Therefore, a water control strategy necessarily involves elements beyond the narrow confines of the application of available water.
The overriding goal needs to be higher productivity of land and water. Achieving the full potential for increased productivity depends on attention to the many factors that influence the incentives and opportunities available to farmers. These can be divided into two sets: (i) factors that apply primarily directly to farmers on their farms and should be addressed there; and (ii) factors that apply beyond the farm and need to be addressed in that sphere. A strategy to address these factors (Figure 3) therefore consists of two sets of tactics, for each of which a combination of instruments and activities can be designed to make up programmes of investments and policy reform packages.
The first objective of the strategy relates to farmers and farms directly and which would pursue the objective of productive and profitable farm operations would be: (i) improve farm management; and(ii)supply irrigation water. The focus for improving farm management would be on farmers and the resources they command. The focus on supply of irrigation would be on other actors bringing water to the farmers for their inclusion in overall input packages.
The second objective of the strategy addresses factors that hinder the creation of effective sets of incentives. The objective would be expanded economic opportunities for farmers. The tactics would be to upgrade the economic and business frameworks. The focus of these tactics would be on role players, such as governments, public institutions and private concerns in marketing.
The overall strategy is to guide identification, formulation and financing of water control programmes and projects, both regional and within countries. The central focus of these is on farmers and their farms and on the ways and means of improving productivity. The guiding principle of programmes and projects should be to improve the investment and enterprise choices of farmers and to increase their capacity to take advantage of market opportunities.
Farmers in different agro-ecological zones (AEZs) and farming systems growing different crops for different markets will use different sets of technologies and techniques. The selection of technologies and techniques will be for the farmers to decide within the business frameworks they face. It will be a responsibility of programme and project design to devise the instruments (e.g. investment and policy) that ensure that farmers are equipped to select and encouraged to use the best technologies and techniques, and that these are made available. The fields of technologies and techniques that are or might be available are extensive. They can be considered within the two sets of tactics for the first objective of the strategy.
FIGURE 3
Strategy for best use of water for
agriculture
Farm management
The critical determinant of production is the quality of farm management that combines available resources to deliver products that meet demand. Farmers are almost the sole role players(i.e. they participate in or influence the outcome of events) on their farms and the dominant stakeholders
(i.e. they are affected by the outcome of events) in production. Therefore, efforts to increase productivity should focus on farmers, on the resources they apply, on how they combine inputs and on how they market their outputs. In short, the challenge is for farmers to select those enterprises most suited to their circumstances, to manage them efficiently and to trade their outputs to best advantage.
Farm management can be improved by selecting enterprises that are best suited to specific ecologies (the RMDs) and to economic opportunities and by applying the best farm practices in the use of fixed and variable inputs. The variable inputs include investments and practices for good crop husbandry and water use. Water managed by farmers includes that stored in the soil, that available by trapping runoff and that brought from outside the farm by irrigation schemes and technologies.
The strategy suggests techniques and technologies to improve management of farms in two groups: (i) use of domain-adapted enterprises; (ii) employment of good farming practices.
Domain-adapted enterprises. The RMDs are defined by farming system, agroclimatic zone, country and proximity to markets. The enterprises that are best adapted to a domain are those that give the best net return to farmers and the highest value added to the nation. Selection of the ‘most profitable’ enterprises should be a business decision made by each farmer on the basis of the available resources and market opportunities.
Factors determining the enterprise ‘profitability’ in a domain include: natural resource endowment, climate, farm size, infrastructure and proximity to markets. In each domain, the number of ‘adapted’ crop and livestock enterprises varies according to these and other factors. Ultimately, commercial judgement by the investing stakeholders(farmers)is the only mechanism for selecting profitable enterprises. However, analysis of the range of production possibilities is a prerequisite for the formulation of policy and strategy to support farmers’ investments. Three examples show how domain-adapted production may be identified when compiling investment programmes:
Pastoral farming system in the remote semi-arid zone of Angola, Namibia and Botswana (RMD29-RMD31). Soils are sandy, highly permeable and of low chemical fertility, and the topography is almost at. The climate is not suitable for rainfed crop production. Water resources are limited to seasonal pools, a few perennial rivers and deep groundwater of varying quality and little recharge. Conditions are generally not suitable for rainwater harvesting. The most adapted enterprises would probably focus on extensive livestock production and possibly game ranching, while small-scale irrigated crop production could be considered near the perennial rivers and adjacent to homesteads. Elsewhere, water development would focus on providing drinking-water for livestock in balance with available natural pasture. The most likely source of water would be groundwater. Near perennial rivers, water development would include the development of cheap and reliable irrigation methods for gardening and improved flood recession farming.
Maize mixed farming system in the relatively densely populated dry subhumid zone of Zambia and Zimbabwe (RMD15 and RMD17). Soils are of low fertility, and the topography undulating with wetlands (dambos). The climate is suitable for rainfed crop production except in dry years. Water resources are abundant with perennial and seasonal rivers, dams and generally good groundwater reserves. Conditions are favourable for water harvesting. These domains have considerable potential for crop production. Maize is the dominant crop because it has proved well suited to the conditions and to the demands of accessible consumers. Moreover, maize offers opportunities to increase yields from the current 1 tonne/ha to 4 tonnes/ha, provided that markets can be found at prices that will induce farmers to raise output. Other crops could be grown here, with their profitability depending on market demand. The focus for water management would be on improving soil fertility and reducing vulnerability to drought. This can be achieved through various forms of minimum tillage and conservation agriculture, both of which improve the infiltration and waterholding capacity of the soil. In addition, simple water harvesting techniques could improve on-farm water supply. Irrigated farming of high-value crops (including winter crops) is possible at selected sites throughout the zone; its profitability would depend on markets and marketing.
Maize mixed farming system in peri-urban areas(e.g. Greater Harare, RMD16). The proximity to urban markets suggests that high-value crops such as vegetables are well adapted to the domain. The focus of programmes to promote peri-urban production would be on investment in infrastructure, with facilities for the reliable supply of water as the centrepiece, supported by conducive policy, especially land zoning and municipality regulations, and securing land and water usage rights for farmers. Reliable sources of water might include existing storages and wetlands with perennially high water tables. Such sources have various users and would need to be managed communally or by an authority.
Traditional forms of agriculture are almost always domain-adjusted. In the case of new and improved systems, farmers need support from extension services and incentives from appropriate policies and support services. The focus of interventions linked to water would be its best use, with other elements of the strategy tailored to the needs of each domain.
Good farming practices. Good farming practices are critical to improving productivity and sustainability. Farmers will be motivated to improve the management of their enterprises where the returns to incremental inputs exceed their cost by an acceptable margin. The most important elements of improved crop husbandry are soil fertility enhancement and soil moisture conservation.
Farmers have many ‘tools’ to improve soil fertility (Chapter 2). Within each domain and each farm, there are many variations as to the inherent nutrient status of the soil, natural nutrient replenishment and fertilization practices. Recommended fertilization practices need to be location specific. Chapter 2 details some important methods of fertilization and soil improvement
Moisture stress in crops and a lack of water for home use and livestock can be relieved on-farm by increasing the infiltration capacity and waterholding capacity of the topsoil and by capturing and using on-farm runoff (Chapter 2). There are many techniques available, often combining water harvesting and soil conservation. Most techniques are location specific, depending on the physical characteristics of the farm, such as soil, landform and rainfall pattern, and on the farm water requirements. Some moisture conservation tools are:
Adding manure, compost and leaf-litter to boost organic matter content of the topsoil. Common. Especially applicable in mixed farming systems. Most applicable in the subhumid zone.
Zero or minimum tillage to conserve crop and weed residues in order to increase organic content in the topsoil. Most applicable in the subhumid zone.
Agroforestry to increase soil organic content. Most applicable in the subhumid zone.
Breaking compact layers through ripping or by growing deep-rooting crops (e.g. pigeon pea) in order to increase soil permeability.
Digging planting holes, contour ridging, furrowing or other land improvements to reduce loss of rainwater through runoff. Various techniques applicable in all zones.
Timely planting and weeding, and selection of drought-resistant crop varieties to enhance efficient use of soil moisture.
Improving irrigation service. There is a view that maintains that water resources are underused, that their development can increase the productivity of farmland and enable new land to come into production, and that there is no alternative if growing populations are to be fed adequately. However, there is another view that holds that irrigation water is expensive and that rainfed production should receive a higher priority in order to enable a higher number of people to be assisted by the limited resources available. These issues are compounded when set into the context of other demands for use of water resources.
The options pursued depend on, among many things, the particular objectives(e.g. maximum value of production, maximum number of rural people with food security, or greatest food supply of a nation) and the resource, technical and economic backgrounds. These and other determinant factors will vary among the RMDs defined in this study.
Farmers obtain water for livestock and crops from sources on or near their farms or from ‘schemes’ that convey it from further afield. Irrigation water from schemes supplies less than 15 percent of the cultivated area in nine of the ten countries and it is applied mainly to higher-value crops. An exception is Swaziland, where 35 percent of the cultivated area is irrigated for large-scale production, especially of sugar cane, pineapple and citrus fruits.
Irrigation practice ranges from large commercial farms drawing their own supply from rivers or storage to government-sponsored (or owned and operated) schemes to small private and informal schemes. Studies suggest that small-scale irrigation schemes are profitable to farmers, especially where: (i) cost recovery is modest; (ii) management is largely in their own hands; (iii) they enjoy considerable freedom to select their own enterprises; (iv) markets for high-value crops are accessible; and (v) land and water rights are inheritable or transferable. However, even where these conditions are satisfied, scheme management must be effective, especially in establishing and imposing discipline to collect and save funds for the O & M of facilities; this is often not the case. The continuation of large-scale commercial irrigation is an indication that such schemes are profitable.
There will be a continuing need for irrigation if higher-value crops (especially those with high water requirements) are to be expanded and cropping is to be intensified and/or diversified to exploit market opportunities. While it may be necessary and desirable to increase the irrigated area, it is also important to use water already under control more efficiently. The use of techniques such as drip irrigation reduces the amount of water applied and can permit the expansion of irrigated areas.
Feasibility studies of project proposals need to examine questions concerning whether and how irrigation should be supplied and who should supply it. These and other critical questions need to be answered on a case-by-case basis. Feasibility studies need to analyse whether water should be supplied by investment in schemes or by farmers developing local sources. The strategy places the options for improving water supply in four groups: (i) improving existing schemes; (ii) developing new storages; (iii) developing reuse of water; and (iv) developing local water capture.
Improving existing schemes. Most of the ten countries attach a high priority to improving and rehabilitating existing schemes. Exceptions are Namibia and Botswana, which have few schemes, and South Africa and Swaziland, where irrigation management and service levels are generally high. The improvement of existing schemes can result in increased water supply, increased reliability of supply and improved farming. Methods for improving schemes include:
repair and upgrading of physical infrastructure (water delivery system, roads, storage and processing facilities);
modification of physical infrastructure to suit new, more economic crops and produce;
change of land tenure to give farmers more security and sense of ownership;
change of management (e.g. from individual plots to outgrower schemes or cooperatives).
Not all schemes warrant improvement and fresh investment. Those that were poorly designed at the outset or have become obsolete under changed socio-economic conditions should not be pursued further. Individual schemes should be examined to determine the need and potential for improvement. Prior to any investment, the priority for improvement or new construction should be assessed in terms of technical and economic criteria.
Developing reuse of water. Where water is particularly scarce, the use of wastewater offers opportunities to increase supply:
Some wastewater from households, farms (irrigation), mines and industries could be reused.
Towns with a water shortage and an efficient sewage system often recycle wastewater (e.g. Harare).
On a small scale, household wastewater can be used on gardens.
Water from large buildings, such as schools, hospitals and office blocks, can be reused.
Water from industries may be polluted and expensive to clean. Some potential may exist for the use of water from mines (tailwater) unless polluted. Well-designed irrigation schemes have good drainage systems and may produce wastewater. Some of this water may have relatively high salt contents and should not be reused.
Developing local water capture. Certain locations provide opportunities for water harvesting, whereby rainwater runoff is collected from hillsides, road drains, roofs and specially prepared (sealed) pieces of land. The water harvested may be stored for later use or channelled directly to the crop. Increasing the infiltration and waterholding capacity of the soil and preventing runoff from the field are also forms of water harvesting. Rainwater harvesting during low and erratic rainfall may help overcome mid-season dry spells during the rainy season, or prolong the growing period. Local water capture is likely to fail in very dry years and is not a substitute for irrigation.
Recommended rainwater harvesting techniques vary according to the available natural resources (land, rainfall and soil), human resources (labour, capital and skills) and produce (crops, trees and livestock). However, few techniques have been subjected to economic analysis. Because of their higher inputs (especially labour), water harvesting techniques are most appropriate for high-value crops.
Farmers who select adapted enterprises, improve their management and enjoy greater access to irrigation may find their efforts to be to little avail if other parts of the framework in which they work do not improve. Markets need to deliver inputs and take outputs of the right quality at the right time and price. Further enhancement of the opportunities for and easing of the constraints on farmers needs to come from changes to the policy framework.
The development of ‘business-oriented’ approaches to farming and the provision of facilities and services to farmers should aim to bring greater efficiency to operations from production through to distribution. The most important way of applying business approaches is to bring commercial discipline to the allocation of resources throughout the production and marketing processes and especially in the allocation of funds for investment.
Attention needs to focus on two areas: (i) marketing; and (ii) policy frameworks.
Improvements to marketing
The most immediate ‘off-farm’ problem affecting farmers is that of the marketing of inputs and outputs in relation to quality, quantity, timeliness and price. Some marketing difficulties are addressable within programmes and projects, while others fall into the sphere of policy.
The marketing systems of the ten countries are in varying stages of development. Those where marketing was previously a function of parastatals have two problems: slow adjustment to the withdrawal or downgrading of parastatals (especially for staples); and slow development of the marketing skills of farmers and traders to assist the growth of higher-value and niche crops. Attention to these difficulties comes in two forms: (i) direct action within a project or programme framework; and (ii) policy development.
Marketing skills can be developed to enable exploitation of niche markets for specialist, high-value crops. However, there are increasingly successful attempts to improve marketing through various ‘market linkages’. These can be pursued case-by-case for differing domains. Further support concerns the construction and operation of communications infrastructure (especially telecommunications and roads)and physical produce markets. This aspect is readily addressable in project interventions.
Policy frameworks
In addition to the national and macroeconomic policy issues discussed earlier, sector policy is also important. In sector policy, the issues are within agriculture and much closer to the water sub-sector. The progress being made in preparing water-sector, natural-resource and drought strategies can provide the foundation for ongoing work to create conducive sector and sub-sector policy. Chapter 2 examined the policy areas of crucial concern to improved water use. The analysis presented there provides the basis for some conclusions on sector policy:
Governments need to send clear and stable signals to producers on market opportunities and facilitate viable market chains in food and fibre production. Of fundamental importance is the guarantee of transparent, stable land tenure systems and water use rights through legal reform. Water law is being reviewed and revised across southern Africa, but often driven from the water supply and sanitation sector. The interests of agriculture have also to be articulated in this respect.
Market distortions need to be eliminated where possible and the private sector encouraged where it can provide expertise in marketing and the application of technology. The role of private irrigation suppliers in providing extension services as a package to smallholders is already significant in the region. But more importantly the void left by withdrawal of government marketing services has not been filled by a flourishing private sector. Therefore, much emphasis should be placed on ‘market linkages’ to improve both the supply of inputs to farmers and their access to profitable markets for the right goods of the right quality at the right time.
The facilitation of appropriate forms of credit will be key to reinforce local circulation of finance within land and water development. Term loans need to be geared toward the long term investment in irrigation hardware and appropriate forms of collateral accepted. Where the private sector is not prepared to take risk, the role of government credit agencies may need to be considered but not at the expense of crowding out private initiative.
Finally, the role of government agencies in promoting enhanced investment in improved water control needs to be clearly understood. Agencies dealing with agricultural extension will continue to be vital where no private agents are active. However, the role of government in owning and operating irrigation infrastructure has become more questionable, particularly when set against the performance of private irrigators - smallholders and large commercial concerns. In this respect it is important that government operational mandates do not crowd out private initiative and finance and that transfer of existing asset base to the farmer associations and commercial operation is considered when public irrigation schemes have become a burden on government budgets.
