0313-B1
Yusuf Gunes[1] and Osman Devrim Elvan
Over the years global forest ecosystems have been under the threat of illegal logging. In this paper, illegal logging activities are considered and the principal causes of such violations will be discussed in the light of the available data and case studies in the Turkish forestry sector. As an introduction a brief description and consideration of the importance of illegal logging in the global context will be given, along with a broad description of Turkish forestry and deforestation activities. In the second part of the paper, the underlying causes of illegal logging are discussed. Following this, some solutions are recommended. The paper concludes that illegal logging is a serious global problem that threatens all the global forests. Turkish forests have been getting their share of such destructive illegal practices, although the extent varies from one period to another, depending upon the circumstances. The underlying causes of illegal logging activities derive from economic, political and cultural structures of Turkish society.
There are several causes of forest deforestation varying from mismanagement, although it may be legal, to illegal logging. Illegal logging has become almost the most serious and apparent threat to forest ecosystems at local, national, regional, and global level. Moreover, illegal logging is showed up mostly the second and the third world countries as well as the developed countries.
Recent studies conducted in Cameroon concluded that the highest-level authorities granted illegal logging activities (Greenpeace Russia, 2000). According to some researchers studying on tropical forests in Brazil believe that about 80% of timber in the Amazon is logged illegally (Laurance et. al. 2001). In Indonesia in the second half of the 1990’s legal harvested timber volumes were 25-28 million m3, whereas illegally logged wood volumes were somewhere in between 17 and 30 million m3 (Palmer, 2001). In Russia, recently illegal logging has become a usual forestry activity. At least 20% of all timber cut is getting logged illegally (Greenpeace Russia, 2000). From East to West, North to South and from tropical regions to boreal forest it is definitely the case that illegal logging activities has been damaging all global forests. Besides the above cases, stealing of trees has been seen a persistent event that happens in the Unites States’ forests since the beginning of the century (Morgenroth 1991). Since 1990 environmental criminal prosecutions have been growing at an exponential rate (Environmental Action 1993). Similarly, Canada has been experiencing crime against forests for many years. In Vancouver Island temperate rainforest of the island has been clear-cut at a rate of 25% above sustainable level (Pendleton 1997). Turkey is not excluded from such violations, meaning that illegal logging has been investigated for many years in Turkey’s forests as well.
Before starting to study the terminology used is to be addressed. The term deals with environmental violations vary from one country to another and mostly depends on the purpose of the study. A study conducted in Russia defines such an activity as "tree felling", whereas another study on Indonesia names such activities as "illegal logging". In the United States and Canada the terms "timber theft", "stealing of trees", "environmental crimes" etc. are used. It does not matter prefer one of those terms as long as their meaning refers the same activity that the trees have been fell down illegally.
Illegal logging activities, in Turkey, cover flora and fauna withdrawals, timber or other forest product smuggling, illegal tree felling, extended clear cutting, harvest without license, picking up harvest residues beyond personnel needs, wood transporting among the cities without legal permit, forestland encroachment, and so on. The common point that all those activities met is that the people have destroyed the forests illegally.
In this study, we analyze available data gathered by some agencies and researchers, although their accuracy and reliability are arguable, because data collected by related state agencies are inconsistent with the data gathered by researchers. Moreover, the official data does not fit well for real facts, meaning that calculating the quantity of illegal logging by multiplying per capita firewood consumption and the population live in forests leads us totally different amount of consumption. The first set of data analyzed has been collected by the General Directorate of Forestry. The second set of data analyzed has been collected by State Statistics Department. The third one has been collected by some researchers, but they are limited to particular fields, not cover all illegal forestry activities. Also, some facts have been investigated to figure out the quantities of timber illegally cut. Moreover, we interviewed some prominent foresters dealing with forest villagers. Thus, accurate and reliable and absolutely correct statistics for illegal logging could not be obtained. But, it still is quite reasonable to assert that there is enough information to suggest that the volumes of timber harvested illegally are substantial and cause for serious concern. Besides that all the data collected by either researchers or by the state forestry department, several local forestry activities violating the forestry legislation are not included because of the difficulties of collecting data, although we can give a rough prediction about them.
According to the data we analyzed Turkey has 20 763 148 hectares of forests covering 26.6% of all surface areas. Of which 14 418 340 hectares are timberland and 6 344 908 hectares are woodlands. Almost all the forests are owned by the state. Both private entities and legal foundation entities have less than 1% of total forests. Total stand tree volume is 1 billion 186 million m3 and annual volume increment is 34 million m3. 86% of them are in timberland and the rest is found in woodland.
According to official statistics available, since 1937[2], the quantity of illegal wood cut is 95 000 m3/year industrial wood and 360 000/year m3 firewood, totally 455 000 m3/year. Among them, illegal tree felling is the first place in quantity extending beyond 64 000 m3/year industrial wood and 177 000 m3/year firewood. The second place is occupied by forestland encroachment. By this type forest crime 135 000 m3/year industrial wood and 123 000 m3/year firewood has been illegally cut. On the other hand, to some researchers illegally wood cut is more than 7 million m3 per year, which is one quarter of total official harvested woods[3]. Besides that, to experts foresters we interviewed illegally cut fire wood is about 5 -7 million m3 and the industrial wood is about 150 000 m3. The fact that each family lives in forests consumes 7 m3 of fuel wood for cooking and heating purposes. Since there are about 1 million families, the total quantity is about 7 million m3[4], which verifies the data collected by the researchers but not verifies official statistics. Therefore, we can apparently reach a point that the data collected by the researchers and in our interviews seem more reasonable and consistent with the reality that the villagers faces. But, this data are limited to just fuel wood and industrial wood fell down illegally. Since there exists some illegal logging practicing that data, available on them, have been collected by only the state agencies. Thus, that data are also used in several ways through the analysis as well.
Illegal logging poses severe threats to the future of Turkish forests. There are several important reasons causes such harmful practicing varying from economical reason to lack of personnel to prevent forests from illegal logging. The causes behind illegal logging can be analyzed as below;
About half of the villages in Turkey have been settled in or next to forests. Within those small villages more than 7 million, approximately 10 % of total population, people have been living[5]. Those villagers become the poorest part of the public. In many regions forest villagers are too poor to buy even the smallest amount of firewood for heating and cooking. In brief, this part of population totally depends on forests resources to meet their vital needs.
According to official statistics, per capita fuel wood consumption is 0.273 m3 throughout the country. This amount is almost three times as much as within the forest villagers increasing up to 1.45 m3. Since forests villagers are to poor to pay for fuel wood, they cut down the amount of wood they need illegally. It is somewhat difficult to estimate the volumes of forest cuttings carried out by the forest villagers. By considering the data given above, our quite rough predictions say that the volumes are equal to some 5 to 8 million m3 of timber annually, which is not recorded officially.
Meanwhile, even 60 % of them have been unemployed for a substantial part of their life and the rest just have seasonal jobs and have considered those forests as the only income sources[6]. It can be said that those villagers get total yearly earnings from forests by cutting trees for subsequent sale. Since there existed a supply and demand imbalance in domestic consumption, the timber price has grown up and the deficit in timber has been supplied from probably illegal logging cheaply. Therefore, such an illegal cuttings peaked before 1990 having had forest villagers encouraged by forest industry. It is less likely to give accurate prediction of the annual volume of unsanctioned cuttings of this type. But, according to the expert foresters we interviewed some 150 000 m3 wood have been cut illegally and shipped to the lumber mills. Also, we can make a point that such kind of unsanctioned cuttings definitely target valuable and matured trees. Since then, such an unsanctioned cuttings have been dropping down, because of having given opportunity to forest industry to have imported trees they needed from particularly Russia and other Eastern European Countries.
Efforts to drop down illegal logging activities in forestlands are obstructed by lack of personnel, infrastructure and equipment. As mentioned above, Turkey has 20.75 million hectares of forestlands and all those forests are administered and managed by the state, The General Directorate of Forestry. That agency has only 5887 forest rangers and each ranger is held responsible for about 3600 hectares of forestlands to monitor and to prevent from illegal logging activities. Also, particularly in winter and bad weather conditions, substantial forestlands become inaccessible because of lack of roads and vehicles. Thus, the rangers try to access the forests by walking. This makes the protection inefficient and it becomes less likely to monitor the smugglers and to arrest criminals. Therefore, this shortage prevents effective protection and law enforcement.
Another reason to fell trees illegally is forestland encroachment. In Turkey, as happening in several countries, industrial plants and factories have been cumulated around metropolitan areas such as Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Adana, and Bursa. This pattern has led domestic migration toward those locations. Since 1970’s settling around those cities have peaked up until present day. Since Turkey does not have enough infrastructures such as roads, electricity, housing lot, the migrants settled wherever they found available, even in the forests just next to those cities. Hence, substantial forestlands[7] have been occupied and settled by those migrants.
Turkish Forest Code of 1956 numbered 6831 has some provisions, such as article 2, encourages public, particularly forest villagers, to occupy and convert forestlands to other usage. According to article 2 of the Code the forestlands lost their plants and vegetations and become more profitable when having been allocated to agricultural usage than having been left as forests before 31.12.1981 are considered off forests and recorded on behalf of the Turkish Treasure Department and left to villagers for usage. If the forest is a private forest the lands aforementioned have been recorded on behalf of the owners and allocated to other usage. In reality, this provision aimed to make previous forestland occupations and clearance legal and cease those illegal logging activities. But, in practice, it could not stop such destructive practices. Up to now, approximately half a million hectares of forestlands have been cleared out and converted to settlements and farmlands.
The penalties prescribed in the Turkish Forest Code of 1956 No: 6831 are not severe and cannot make the people to deviate from committing forest crimes, particularly felling down trees. In some cases, a potential criminal can be coerced to pay only a small amount of fine. Hence, committing forest crimes, particularly illegal tree felling activities, has been kept continuing.
As mentioned above forest villagers consider forestlands as an income source by converting those forests to agricultural usage as well. In other words, tea plantations and hazelnuts farms in Black Sea Region, olive farms in Marmara and Aegean Sea Region in Eastern Black Sea Region have been established in deformed forestlands by clearing all vegetation and tress. Particularly government subsidy prices have encouraged to those villagers for converting activities and made those converted forestlands more profitable than keeping them being into forestlands. Consequently, about a million hectares[8] of forestlands have been converted to other usage, particularly agricultural planting, and all vegetation and trees have been destroyed.
These analyses support the notion that illegal logging activities have been posing a serious threat to Turkish forests for many years. Although it has been getting down at least on industrial woods since 1990’s, illegal logging is still the most severe reason for forestland decreasing. There are several reasons for illegal tree felling varying from economical necessities to the deficiencies of forestry personnel. The most important reason that causes illegal logging is the poverty existed in small villages. Even, their vital necessities can only be supplied from forests unless the Turkish government develop a radical economic and development program that gets rid those people off from poverty. Then, forestry department abstaining them from encouraging illegal logging should strictly control forest industry. Lastly, agricultural policy should be coordinated to give forest protection high priority.
Illegal logging activities has become a serious threat to Turkish forests for many years. Up to now more than a million acres of forestlands have been destroyed. Currently, approximately a quarter of total domestic consumption comes from illegal logging. These harmful activities are more common in forest villages than anywhere else. Besides that, the quantity of illegally cut tress encouraged by forest industry raises a substantial amount exceeding 150 000 m3 per year. Illegal logging activities have many complex underlying causes derive from economic, political, and cultural structures of Turkish society. To prevent our forests from illegal logging and other harmful activities we need to address the poverty the forest villagers have been experiencing urgently. Then, forest legislation is another issue that is to be dealt with. In other words, an essential amendment in article 2 of Forest Code No: 6831 is needed. On the other hand, The General Directorate of Turkish Forests is to be full furnished by enough equipment and personnel. Besides that, all forestlands are to be made accessible in every season and weather conditions. In addition, the state should revise agricultural policy and does not pay for subsidy prices to farmers encouraging forestland conversion to agricultural usage.
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[1] Istanbul University,
Forestry Faculty, Department of Forestry Law, 80895 Bahcekoy/Istanbul Turkey.
Tel: + 90 (0212) 226 11 00 ext: 315; Email:
[email protected] [2] The first regular statistics was recorded in 1937. [3] Total yearly harvest is about 28 million m3. [4] In Turkey, there are almost 1 million families and each of them consumes about 7 m3 of fuel wood. [5] Mustafa KONUKÇU, 1999. Ormanciligimiz - Turkish Forestry, p. 71. [6] General Directorate of Turkish Forestry hires 5887 forest rangers. [7] It is estimated that almost half a million hectares of forests have been encroached by people. [8] According to Official Statistics, about half a million hectares of forestlands have converted to agricultural usage, but according to The Chamber of Forest Engineers of Turkey has conducted a study and has found that about 1.5 million hectares of forestlands have been converted to agricultural usage: |