0337-A1
Susan J. Alexander[1] and Marla Emery
The United States National Report on Sustainable Forests, based on the Montreal Process Criteria and Indicators, specifically addresses non-timber forest products (NTFPs). NTFPs harvested in the USA include understory species used in the floral market, boughs, fungi, stems, poles and posts, wild foods, medicinals, plant extracts, transplants and materials used for crafts. Many species have a long tradition of use; others have entered commercial markets as entrepreneurs work to develop new products. People harvest NTFPs in the USA for sale, trade, personal use, gifts and subsistence. A tremendous variety of native plant, lichen and moss species supply commercial foliage, stems, branches, and other vegetation for use in the winter holiday season and in the year-round floral industry. Wild foods are becoming increasingly popular in the USA. Foods from native species provide a small share of the food species consumed by Americans, but are often culturally significant. Medicinal herbal products and plants have been and are big business in the USA, and demand for them has prompted protective measures. Many plant and lichen species native to the USA and its territories are used as fragrances, flavors, resins and oils. Businesses in the NTFP industry are generally small, employing few people. A conservative estimate of the value of NTFPs is US$5 billion or more in the USA. This would be 0.05% or more of gross domestic product. Forests in the USA are used for subsistence purposes by a wide variety of cultural, ethnic, and racial groups. NTFP industries will likely remain an important component of regional economies for years to come, although individual product markets will increase or decrease from year to year depending on changing market conditions and resource availability. NTFPs are part of the fabric of western culture, and will remain so.
The United States National Report on Sustainable Forests (2002) was developed in response to concerns about conservation and sustainable forest management at the international level, as part of the Santiago Declaration of the Montreal Process. The Montreal Process is the Working Group on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests, formed in June 1994 to develop and implement internationally agreed Criteria and Indicators for the conservation and sustainable management of temperate and boreal forests. The US National Report on Sustainable Forests provides information on the state of forests in America. Several Indicators in two Criteria specifically address nontimber forest products (NTFPs), including values, production, supply and consumption, employment, wage rates, and subsistence. Throughout North America, the range of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) harvested for personal use and for sale is substantial, and includes florals, landscape materials, foods, medicinal herbs, craft materials, and game animals and fur bearers. The range and scope of historic and current use of these products by many cultural groups has not been widely recognized in the US, but they contribute substantially to household economies throughout North America through personal use, trade, and sale. We summarize the findings from the US Report on Sustainable Forests specific to NTFPs by discussing the products by category, and then outlining issues regarding labor and subsistence use. From the willow basket in the kitchen to the jam in the cupboard, nontimber forest products invoke more than their appearance or use. They connect us to people and place.
A tremendous variety of native plant, lichen and moss species supply commercial foliage, stems, branches, and other vegetation for use in the winter holiday season and in the year-round floral industry. Species availability and use change with shifts in taste and with the introduction of new items to the marketplace. Florida, the Southeast, and the Pacific Northwest are the major centers for the fresh floral industry, with many native evergreen species available nearly year-round. Agriculturally grown and wild harvested foliage products are shipped from both the Pacific Northwest and the Southeast to European markets. The dried foliage industry supplies mainly domestic consumers as export markets emphasize fresh materials. The wild-harvested floral industry has been in existence in the Pacific Northwest since the early 1900s, and in the northeast and southeast for much longer. Schlosser et al. (1991) estimated the size of the NTFP floral and Christmas greens markets in Washington, Oregon and southwest British Columbia at $128.5 million in 1989. In 2000, the U.S. Department of Interior Bureau of Land Management (BLM) issued permits for 340 tons of boughs for $25,435, 467 tons of floral greenery for $1,902, and 68 tons of moss for $4,514. In the same year, the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service (USFS) issued permits for boughs for $282,011 and for floral greens for $490,918. Permit prices usually represent ten percent or less of the shed (the first buying level) value for the product. Permit sales are a good indicator of relative market size and movement, but are not reliable for determining total harvest, as a great deal of gathering takes place without a permit. The floral industry will likely remain an important component of regional economies for years to come, although individual product markets will increase or decrease from year to year depending on changing market conditions and resource availability (Alexander et al. 2002a).
Since 1992, the value of moss and lichen exports has been increasing steadily, primarily in customs districts in the Pacific Northwest and New York. At least $13 million worth of moss and lichen was exported from the Pacific Northwest in 1998. Permits for moss and bryophytes from BLM lands in Oregon and Washington included tree moss, sheet moss (moss that can be lifted from surfaces in large sheets), and lichens; harvesters bought permits for a total of 133,647 pounds in 2000. Tradition and cultural use influences Christmas tree use (Alexander et al. 2002a). In fiscal year 2000, the BLM sold 17,861, and the USFS sold 230,252 Christmas tree permits.
Foods from native species provide a very small share of the food species consumed by Americans, but are often culturally significant. Wild foods are becoming increasingly popular in the US. Although information on domestic trade of wild berries is not generally available, several species are harvested for domestic use. Huckleberries and blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) are the most frequently harvested wild berries in forest landscapes throughout the mountainous northern states, from the west coast to the northeast. They are important to indigenous people and to other local communities, for personal consumption, as gifts, and for sale. Forestlands in the northeastern U.S. are often managed specifically for blueberry production (Chaney 1990). Wild blueberry exports have a long tradition, particularly wild blueberries harvested in the northeastern United States (primarily V. angustifolium). Other foods harvested from US forests include blackberries (Rhus spp.) black walnuts (Juglans spp.), wild rice (Zizania aquatica), ramps (Allium spp.), maple sugar and maple syrup (primarily Acer saccharum), and various ferns, tubers, and roots. Pinyon pine (Pinus spp.) nuts are harvested in the intermountain region. Permits for nuts and seed, mushrooms, fungi, and fruit and berries are widely issued by the BLM and the USFS.
Edible wild-growing mushrooms have wide and growing popularity, both in the US and as exports. The biological aspects of commercial mushroom production have been explored by several studies (e.g., Norvell 1995; Pilz et al. 1999; Alexander et al. 2002b). Blatner and Alexander (1998) estimate that as many as 36 species are traded commercially but Boletus spp., chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.), morels (Morchella spp.), and American matsutake (Tricholoma magnivelare) make up the bulk of the industry. The size of the wild mushroom market in Washington, Oregon and Idaho was estimated at $38.6 million in 1989, and $41.1 million in 1992 (Schlosser and Blatner 1995). Mushroom buying may represent the largest cash-based legal commerce in our society.
Forage grass species are particularly important to Federal and private land management in California and the Pacific Northwest, Rocky Mountain, and Southwest regions where grazing in or near forest environments is a major land use activity and where native range restoration is a goal. Common native grass and legume species provide valuable forage for domesticated animals and wildlife species, and are used for range reclamation and restoration. Some commercial grass forage species such as Indian ricegrass (Achnantherum hymenoides) are traditional foods of Native Americans. Programs for seeding lands with native forage accomplish two important elements of Federal trust responsibilities to recognized Indian tribes: restoring ecosystems with traditional food species and providing high-quality forage for native game species such as buffalo and pronghorn antelope (Alexander et al. 2002a).
The popular use of medicinal plants and fungi has experienced an expansion in the past twenty years exceeding that of any other nontimber native flora. Brevoort (1998) provides an overview of the dramatic change in the U.S. in consumption of medicinal plant products. Between 1996 and 1998, national retail sales of medicinal plant-based products rose from $1.8 billion to $4.0 billion. Most of the increase comes from value-added processing, from fresh herb sales to standardized extracts and phytomedicines. These market figures are the result of a combination of wild harvests, wild-simulated agroforestry operations, and domesticated native species grown in agricultural environments.
Medicinal herbal products and plants have been and are big business in the United States, and demand for them has prompted protective measures. Major herbal products important historically in the U.S. are mentioned in legislative laws in many states (Alexander et al. 2002a). Some are concerned that the increasing demand will increase pressure on harvesters to supply large volumes to brokers (von Hagen and Fight 1999). Others see opportunities for value-added processing by independent entrepreneurs. Some species used in flower essences are rare, threatened, or endangered, federally or in the states where people produce flower essences. Actual impacts from flower essence production on native species are difficult to monitor or assess. Consumer awareness of choices and impacts has critical implications for sustainability, product purity issues, equity and social issues, and many other concerns (Alexander et al. 2002a).
The use of nontimber forest products in arts and crafts is an integral part of innumerable traditions in the United States. From Native American use of bark, willow and branches in baskets, masks, traditional and ceremonial dress, to doll-making and baskets in the Appalachians, to furniture, birdhouses, bowls and other well-known and admired Shaker products, the plants used are as varied as the products created. The BLM sells permits for burls, cones, and hobby wood in almost every western state. Many sources have documented the use of nontimber forest products in arts and crafts (e.g., Emery 1998). As many of the products are created in rural communities and are traded or sold without records, information about these markets is very difficult to summarize. In addition, the diversity of products makes these markets difficult to track as a group. The U.S. Bureau of the Census (1993) projected the value of the handicraft industry at $600 million in 1996. These are significant products that contribute in important ways to household economies and have important meaning across US cultures (Alexander et al. 2002a).
Many plant and lichen species native to the United States and its territories are used as fragrances and flavors. A few species native to the United States have a long tradition of commercial industrial uses as fragrances and have international markets. Other species, although native to North America, are increasingly grown commercially in other countries (Bauer and others 1997). Certain common species such as balsam fir (Abies balsamea) are still wildcrafted in the Northeast and the northcentral states. Many species native to the US are used for essential oil production in North America. The range of species currently used in the perfume industry is narrow, particularly when only North American species are considered. By contrast, resins and oils are important NTFPs in the United States. Conservation of many of these species is important for land managers and landowners, especially in areas that comprise ceded lands or customary use lands as defined in treaties between the U.S. Government and sovereign Indian tribes.
The composition and configuration of wildlife habitat is fundamentally affected by land use activities. Land use changes most likely to significantly affect wildlife habitat, populations, and harvests include the increase in urban and built-up land, the retirement of cropland acreage into the Cropland Reserve Program, changes in forest successional stages, the extensive loss of grassland habitats, and the continued loss of wetland habitats. Based on these changes, Flather and others (1999) expect increase in species that tolerate intensive land use activities, increases in species associated with agricultural habitats, decreases in species associated with grasslands and early successional stages of forest habitats (especially in the north), and general declines in species dependent on wetlands.
Rosenberger and Loomis (2001) summarized numerous studies that examined the recreational value of many activities, including hunting, fishing, and wildlife viewing. The number of people who take trips for the primary purpose of viewing, photographing, or feeding wildlife is substantial. In 1996, nearly 24 million people participated in wildlife watching. Although it is more common to participate in nonconsumptive recreation than to hunt, the rate of decline in wildlife viewing exceeds that of all types of hunting (Flather and others 1999).
Businesses in the nontimber forest products (NTFP) industry are generally small, employing few people. There are exceptions, but most businesses are what are referred to as very small enterprises (VSEs), employing less than ten people. Very small enterprises are relevant to the informal economy for two important reasons. First, because of their low visibility, ease of displacement, and other small business/low capital investment characteristics, VSEs provide the most appropriate setting for casual hiring, non-reported income, and other informal practices. Second, it is easier to operate a VSE as a totally underground business, thus escaping government record keeping. However, it is important to note that not all VSEs engage in informal practices. Of the firms that reported doing business as forest nurseries or gathering forest products in the US in 1998, 82 percent were VSEs (Alexander et al. 2002a). These small businesses cumulatively contribute a great deal to the U.S. economy. A conservative estimate of nonwood products value is $5 billion or more in the U.S. This would be 0.05 percent or more of gross domestic product.
A few studies have attempted to estimate gross wages for NTFP harvesters. Estimates for mushroom harvesters range from $30 per day (Love et al. 1998) to as high as $4000 in one season (Acker 1986, Meyer Resources 1995). Other authors have found that while such wages may be standard for experienced pickers, the majority of mushroom harvesters earn far less and many, particularly those with little or no experience, lose money. Mushroom pickers are paid immediately in cash by buyers, who may handle tens of thousands of dollars each day in high-value, high-volume areas. Alexander et al. (2002b) explain how harvester wages for mushroom picking could be determined. It is known locally, in many cases, what harvesters are paid for products they harvest from the forest. However, assessing a wage from that data can be problematic. Harvester costs are generally unknown, and the harvesters’ personal minimum wage may vary from one market to another, from one season to another, and will vary as economic conditions change.
U.S. forests are used for subsistence purposes by a wide variety of cultural, ethnic, and racial groups (Emery and Schroeder 2002). A measure of forests that are actually used for subsistence is difficult to obtain outside of locations where such practices are legally guaranteed. The legal availability of forests for harvest of subsistence resources appears to vary by land ownership and, except where legally protected, there may be a trend toward a diminishing subsistence land base. Concentrations of subsistence hunters, fishers, trappers, and gatherers appear to exist in communities and rural regions with high forest cover and low household incomes. There may also be meaningful subsistence use by poor urban residents and recent immigrants.
Nontimber forest products are significant in the U.S. to many people in numerous cultural groups, at all economic levels, for personal use, subsistence, and commercial trade. The contribution of NTFPs to local and regional economies, although significant, has been poorly documented. Silvicultural practices, fire management, access issues, permit structures, and the global economy all work together to affect local and regional use and trade in ways that have been historically unexamined. Issues about intellectual property rights, harvesting rights, and sustainability are significant throughout North America. Many local forest managers are becoming aware of the impact they have on local businesses through regulation of NTFP harvest and trade. Others are becoming more aware of treaty and other fiduciary responsibilities. Nontimber forest products are part of the fabric of western culture, and will remain so.
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