0393-A1

Values and stakeholders: an example from Canada's Model Forest Program

Bonita L. McFarlane and Peter C. Boxall ¹

Abstract

The sustainable forest management paradigm includes the incorporation of multiple values and stakeholders. However, economic values and individuals directly involved in forest management decisions have been the dominant values and stakeholders in many jurisdictions in Canada. Canada's Model Forest Program provides an opportunity to extend these concepts to include less tangible values and diverse stakeholders. The Foothills Model Forest undertook a study to examine value orientation, attitudes toward sustainable forest management, knowledge and socio-economic characteristics of four stakeholder groups in Alberta: the public, registered professional foresters (RPFs), environmentalists and forest industry public advisory groups (PAGs). Data were collected by mail surveys in 1999. Results show that the groups differ on socio-economic characteristics and have disparate value orientations and attitudes toward forest management. Environmentalists and the public are more supportive of inherent worth and rights of nature and they believe that timber supply and the inclusion of multiple benefits are inadequate, that forestry is damaging the environment, and that the public does not have enough input in forest management. RPFs and PAG members are more supportive of managing forests for economic benefit and human use and generally, have a more optimistic view of the sustainability of forest management. These results suggest that current public involvement mechanisms reflect the views of dominant decision makers in forest management and do not capture the broader range of values and attitudes that exist among the general public.

Introduction

The Model Forest Program was established in 1991 by the Government of Canada to develop and test nontraditional approaches to forest management policies and programs that are integral to sustainable forest management (Sinclair and Smith 1999). The Model Forest Network consists of eleven model forests, established across Canada, representing five major ecoregions. Each model forest is comprised of partners representing a diversity of forest values, working together to develop innovative region-specific approaches to sustainable forest management (Natural Resources Canada 2001). The model forests act as hands-on laboratories in which leading-edge sustainable forest management techniques are researched, developed, applied, and monitored.

Subsequent to the establishment of a model forest network in Canada, an International Model Forest Network was established in 1992 with sites in Mexico, Russia and the United States (Natural Resources Canada 2001). Since then a total of 19 international model forests have been established and several additional countries have expressed an interest (The International Model Forest Network 2003).

A basic tenet of sustainable forest management is the inclusion of multiple values so that biological and social systems are managed sustainably (Bengston 1994). However, the economic value of commodity production has dominated values analysis and policy and management decisions in most of North America (Toman and Ashton 1996). Reliance on economic values of commodities has resulted in a failure to adjust to changing societal values and provides only partial account of what is valued in forests (Bengston 1994).

This paper describes a study undertaken for one of Canada's model forests, the Foothills Model Forest (FMF). The establishment of the model forest created the climate for a broader range of values to be studied and attempted to develop an innovative approach to incorporating a range of values into a valuation framework. The goals of this study were to broaden the scope of stakeholders generally considered in forest management, to understand the value-orientation and attitudes of these stakeholders, and to determine if differences exist between stakeholders who currently dominate public involvement and decision-making and the general public.

Forest Values

North Amercian society has experienced a shift away from a central focus on timber production to include the less tangible non-utilitarian values such as spiritual, aesthetic, existence, and amenity values (Xu and Bengston 1997). It is these values that have gained importance in the sustainable forest management paradigm but are the least understood.

This study uses the concept of held values as a basis for capturing the non-utilitarian aspects of forests. Held values represent an individual's general beliefs about forests and have been defined as relatively enduring conceptions of the good related to forests and forest ecosystems (Bengston 1994). Two basic types of held forest values have been identified (Steel et al. 1994). Anthropocentric values relate to the use of forests for products and services that satisfy human wants and needs. This represents a human-centred view of nature and has dominated the traditional timber management paradigm in forestry. In contrast, biocentric values refer to the worth of forests, regardless of their usefulness to humans. Forests are viewed as having intrinsic value and a right to exist for their own sake. Included in this category are spiritual, existence, and aesthetic values, and the rights of nature.

To a large extent differences in policy and management preferences among stakeholders centre on whether individual's have a biocentric or an anthropocentric orientation towards forests (Stern and Dietz 1994). Thus, by understanding the value orientation of stakeholders, managers can predict how they might react to management practices, why they react the way they do, and which groups might be affected by management changes.

Broadening the Concept of Stakeholder

In addition to broadening the range of values considered in forest management the sustainable forest management paradigm also recognizes the need to broaden the range of stakeholders who have input to forest management and policy.

Prior to the establishment of the FMF, registered professional foresters (RPFs) from industry and government were the dominant stakeholders in natural resource management in the region. RPFs represent the forestry profession and thus have considerable influence in policy and management decisions in the province.

Public input to forest management in Alberta occurs primarily through organized interest groups and the use of public advisory groups (PAGs). Public advisory groups advise the forest industry on forest management plans and activities. They usually represent a variety of community-based organizations such as chambers of commerce, trappers, recreation groups, and environmental advocates. Public advisory groups are the main forum for public involvement for the forest industry in Alberta.

Environmental groups are another group that is often asked by government and industry to provide input on environmental issues and they are often interveners in environmental impact assessment hearings. However, they are also viewed as being elitists whose interests are not representative of the general public.

Because the model forest is predominately public land, each citizen in the province of Alberta is a legitimate stakeholder. It is assumed, however, that the interests of the public are captured by the RPFs, PAG members, and at least to some extent, environmental groups.

Methods

Four groups of stakeholders were included in the study: Alberta general public, members of environmental groups, RPFs, and members of forest industry PAGs. The sample for the general public was obtained by a random selection of telephone numbers. Membership mailing lists were used to obtain samples of environmentalists and RPFs. All members of 11 PAGs in the province were included in the study. Details on the sampling and survey methodology can be found in McFarlane and Boxall (2000).

Data were collected by mail survey in 1999. The protocol for survey implementation included an initial mailing followed about 10 days later by a reminder postcard, and 1 month after the initial mailing a second reminder and survey were sent to those who had not responded. Implementation of the PAG survey followed a different protocol. The PAG coordinators distributed the surveys to their members. Only 4 coordinators distributed reminder letters and further follow-up with PAG members was not possible. Response rates were 74% for the general public (n=715), 76% for environmental groups (n=209), 73% for RPFs (n=109), and 45% for PAGs (n=71).

A value orientation scale based on previous studies was used to measure biocentric and anthropocentric orientations towards forests. Biocentric statements reflected the rights of nature and inherent worth, existence value, and spiritual aspects of forests. Anthropocentric statements reflected using forests to satisfy human wants and needs. Respondents rated 16 statements on a 5-point scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Cluster analysis was used to segment stakeholders based on their value orientation. Factor analysis identified 2 factors corresponding to anthropocentric and biocentric value orientations. To segment respondents, a discrete clustering procedure was performed on the resulting factor scores.

Attitudes toward forest management were assessed using statements managing for multiple benefits, sustainability of timber supply, the economic benefits of forestry, and public involvement. Perceptions of long-term threats to Alberta's forests included natural disturbances such as forest fires and human-induced changes such as climate change and urbanization. Public advisory group members were not asked their perceptions of threats to the forest.

Two measures were used to knowledge of forest management. Familiarity with basic forest-related facts was assessed using 10 true or false statements. Respondents also rated how well informed they thought they were on forest management issues in Alberta.

Results

The cluster analysis of value orientation segmented the stakeholder groups into three segments. The clusters were named Human-centred, Moderate, and Biocentric. The Human-centred group had the highest mean score on the anthropocentric factor. The Biocentric group supported the rights of nature and did not support intervention in forest management. The Moderate group also showed strong support for rights of nature and existence values but scored about neutral on the anthropocentric factor.

The distribution of the stakeholder groups among the value orientation segments revealed disparate orientations among the stakeholders (Figure 1). The RPFs and PAGs, the two groups with direct involvement in forest management, had a larger proportion of their members in the Human-centred segment and fewer in the Biocentric segment. In contrast, the public and environmentalists, differed from the RPFs and PAGs and were similar to one another by having a larger proportion of their members in the Biocentric segment. The public also showed a wider range of value orientation than the other stakeholders by having a more equal distribution of members across the three orientation segments.

There were also substantial differences among the stakeholder groups in terms of their attitudes toward the sustainability of forest management in the province (Table 1). Generally, RPFs and PAG members had a more optimistic view of the sustainability of timber supply, the successful inclusion of multiple values in forest management, and the adequacy of public involvement. The other groups believed that timber supply is inadequate to meet future needs in the province, that multiple forest benefits are not given enough consideration, that forestry is damaging the environment, and that the public does not have adequate input in forest management decisions.

The public and environmental groups rated the amount of trees being logged, logging practices, and the amount of forested land allocated for harvesting as the 3 greatest threats to the province's forests. Registered professional foresters perceived influences not related to current forest management practices as posing the greatest threats. Oil and gas exploration and pipelines, loss of forested land for other purposes such as agriculture and urbanization, and negative publicity about forest management were perceived by RPFs as being the greatest threats.

The knowledge measures also showed substantive differences among the groups. Not surprisingly, the RPFs and PAG members were more knowledgeable about forests than the public and the environmentalists. The general public was the least informed group scoring lowest on the true/false questions and having the highest proportion rating themselves as not informed about forest management issues. The environmentalists were considerably better informed than the public but less informed than the RPFs and PAG members.

The RPFs differed substantially from the other groups in terms of socioeconomic characteristics. They were younger, better educated, had higher household incomes, and had fewer women in their membership. The PAG groups also had fewer women and higher levels of education than the public. The public was the least educated and had the lowest household incomes of all the groups.

Discussion

Canada's Model Forest Program is based on the principals of sustainable forest management. Thus, the inclusion of a broad range of values and stakeholders are key to the success of a model forest. This study has shed some insight on stakeholder groups and their disparate value orientations and attitudes in relation to forest management in one of Canada's model forests and has implications for other model forests.

The differences among stakeholders have implications for public involvement. Contrary to the assumption that PAGs represent a broad public interest, the PAG members shared similar value orientation and attitudes as industry and government professionals and were not representative of the public's views. Indeed, the similarity of values and attitudes of the public and environmental groups suggests that there is an underlying public sympathy toward environmental groups that challenge the forest industry. The reliance on PAGs as the primary public involvement mechanism in the FMF suggests that other publics and their views might have been overlooked. Survey research is another mechanism to provide input from stakeholders who might not have the interest, time or resources to attend public involvement activities such as advisory committees or open houses. It appears that survey research can reach a broad public and numerous stakeholders that might not be represented in more traditional forms of public involvement.

The differences in knowledge between the stakeholder groups suggests that attitudes related to sustainability could, in part, be addressed through communications; especially those directed at the public. Although several efforts are being made by industry and the FMF to inform the public about forest research and sustainable management practices, the public remains the least knowledgeable group and rates themselves as the least informed on forest issues. The commonly advocated approach of "educating the public" as a means of reducing conflicts with the forest industry may not be as effective as many forest managers believe. The effect of information on attitudes is not clear but studies suggest that rather than changing the direction of attitudes (i.e., from negative to positive) information may make attitudes more extreme (Tesser and Leone 1977). This study suggests that factual information alone may not produce the desired effect of changing attitudes. For example, although the environmental group in the current study had a relatively high level of knowledge it did not translate into positive attitudes toward forest management or the forest industry. Effective persuasive communication is a complex process that requires an understanding of communication theory, initial attitudes, information on demographics and knowledge gaps of the audience, the most effective media, the perceived credibility of the communicator, and other factors (Petty et al. 1992).

Information on value orientation and attitudes can help managers in the goal-setting stages of forest management and can help managers understand underlying differences among stakeholders. The development of tools such as the values scale used in this study provides a basis for obtaining public input on broadly defined management goals and priorities and periodic monitoring of stakeholder values over time. The use of standardized measures and quantification of values represents another tool that can be used to supplement current public involvement mechanisms. Such tools can be applied to other model forests in Canada and elsewhere to determine if these types of values are relevant in other cultures and societies and to provide a comparison between model forests in North America and other regions of the world.

Figure 1. Distribution of stakeholder groups among value orientation segments. (From McFarlane and Boxall 2000)

References

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Natural Resources Canada. 2001. Model Forest Network - About Us. Ottawa, ON. Online at <http://www.modelforest.net>. Accessed 21 May 2001.

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¹ Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre, 5320 - 122 Street, Edmonton, AB T6H 3S5, Canada. [email protected]