The development of aquaculture and culture based fisheries in Ghana: the social and cultural contexts TABLE OF CONTENTS

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 Historical Perspective

2. Current Strategies
2.1 Strategy for inland aquaculture and culture based fisheries.
2.2. Wider development strategy
2.3 Extension.
2.4. Planned investment in irrigation
2.5. Decentralisation of Planning

3. The Situation in Rural Areas
3.1. Importance of agriculture
3.2 Migration and the predominance of smallholders
3.3. Prevalence of subsistence agriculture
3.4. Smallholders' sources of income
3.5. Rural Poverty
3.6. Farming systems
3.7. Labour

4. Traditional Systems and Social Organisation
4.1. Language and ethnic groupings
4.2. Land tenure
4.3. Land tenure problems
4.4. Traditional Management Systems
4.5. Fish processing and marketing
4.6. Taboos and fish preferences
4.7. Informal credit

5. Development strategies
5.1. Summary of existing situation
5.2. Implications for the development of aquaculture and culture based fisheries.

6. Main Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1. Conclusions.
6.2. Recommendations.
APPENDIX 1. Size Distribution of Agricultural Holdings, 1984.
APPENDIX 2. Estimation of Numbers of Smallholders Below Poverty Line in 1986.
APPENDIX 3. Extent of agricultural Production for Subsistence and Sale, 1986.
APPENDIX 4. Quality of Life Indicators.
APPENDIX 5. Map showing approximate breakdown of main tribal and language groups in Ghana.

7. References.

1. Introduction.

1.1 Background.

Agriculture, forestry and fishing are important sectors of Ghana's economy and improvement in the performance of these sectors is central to the country's current economic recovery programme.¹ The severe economic decline which the country went through between the early 1970's and the early 1980's affected poorer socio-economic groups in particular ² through depressed wage levels and increased unemployment. Also between the late 1970's and the early 1980's , there was a serious decline in national food production and food shortages, which were caused by drought, were exacerbated through the enforced repatriation of over one million Ghanaians in 1983 from Nigeria.

In spite of efforts to increase national food production, the country has had to rely to a significant extent on imports, often in the form of food aid, to maintain adequate supplies. Some dependence on imports still exists ³ and the country's relatively high consumption of fish has meant that food imports have included substantial quantities of fish and fish products. Supplies of marine fish from national sources are now limited because of the full exploitation of national stocks and the more restricted access to the waters of other African countries, such as Angola, Namibia and Mauritania. Against this background and with the prospect of further increases in demand from a growing population, any means of expanding the national production of fish is obviously of interest.

The development of inland aquaculture and culture-based fisheries have for some time now been considered by government to be ways in which the national production of fish can be increased. So far, however, efforts to achieve this have been ineffective and this project is an attempt at defining (a) what the real potentials in these areas are and (b) how best government and development assistance agencies might intervene to effectively develop these potentials.

The choice and design of interventions for the development of inland aquaculture and culture based fisheries has to be based on a good understanding of many factors, including the human, social and cultural factors which exist. This report attempts to identify the important aspects of rural society in Ghana which can affect such development and to assess how best to achieve impact within the existing social and cultural contexts.

¹ Reference 1.

² References 4 and 5.

³ Reference 1

However, it has to be emphasised that, within the time-scale of the study, the identification of social and cultural influences can only be general in nature. Ghana's rural societies are too complex and varied to be fully surveyed by a short mission and an important first recommendation for those proposing aquaculture and culture based fisheries development projects is that detailed survey of the local populations likely to be affected has to be undertaken before projects are set in motion. It is only in this way that appropriate target groups can be selected and the likely impact of aquaculture or culture based fisheries development efforts on them be assessed.

1.2 Historical Perspective

Ghana has the potential for both freshwater and brackishwater aquaculture and culture based fisheries. The efforts of government so far have mainly been on the development of culture based fisheries in freshwater environments, although in the early 1980's there was a massive campaign to persuade the public to establish pond fish culture. ⁴ This campaign was effective to the extent that a large number of people responded by building ponds in different parts of the country but especially in the south around Kumasi and Accra.

The results of these developments have, however, been extremely disappointing. Many of the ponds have failed to produce, a good number of the people originally involved have remained active but only a small proportion of these have gained any return on their investment. Surveys carried out as part of this mission indicate that 23% of ponds constructed have been abandoned and that those remaining in operation are achieving yields well below their potential. One of the central reasons for this disappointing outcome has been the failure of government to support its promotional campaign with advice, information and extension to the aspiring producers. The government services did not have the capability to support a new industry and this situation has continued to exist to the present time. There has also been no mechanism for the exchange of information between countries in the region where the basic development potentials and constraints are similar.

⁴ Reference 6

There is a longer history to the development of culture based fisheries, which has its origins in the water conservation programmes initiated by government in the 1940's in the northern regions of the country. These areas have a long dry season and a single and unreliable rainy season. The human and livestock populations of the area were, therefore, seriously affected by drought problems and the government embarked on a programme of dugout and dam construction to provide reliable supplies of water. Such schemes are widespread throughout the Upper East, Upper West and Northern Regions of Ghana and are now a vital part of the infrastructure of the local communities where they are located. In addition to providing water for humans and livestock, these dams and dug outs have been a source of water for irrigated crop production and of fish for local people.

Fisheries development efforts on the part of government began in these areas in the late 1940's. Some of the water bodies were stocked by the Fisheries Department and others were naturally stocked. The government effort was backed up by programmes for training local people in fishing techniques and this remained one of the principal involvements of the Fisheries Department for about 30 years.

An important feature of these developments has been that the responsibility for the management of the water bodies and the lands adjacent to them was originally retained by the local communities and put into effect through their chiefs and headmen.⁵ In a formal sense, the creation of the Fisheries Department in 1946 with its stated responsibilities for fisheries administration, development and regulation, meant that management passed into the hands of government. However, in practice, the local communities in most areas did not relinquish control of the water bodies and the current reality is that, in all but the largest schemes, management and development initiatives are not possible without the participation or consent of the traditional rulers. Obviously, this has clear implications for how aquaculture and culture based fisheries development has to be approached.

The programmes of construction of dams and dug-outs over many years can be viewed as part of the general efforts to redress imbalances between north and south of the country, although it has to be noted that, from the communities' standpoint, they are primarily sources of domestic and animal water supplies and of water for irrigated crop production. For most, the supply of fish from these sources would have been an incidental benefit rather than a primary function.

⁵ Reference 7

2. Current Strategies.

2.1 Strategy for inland aquaculture and culture based fisheries.

As noted in the previous section, agriculture, forestry and fisheries play a dominant role in the economy of Ghana and their future development is considered to be the basis for the country's long-term economic recovery.⁶ The government, with support from the World Bank, has recently outlined strategies for the next five years for the agriculture sector and the important elements of the strategy for inland aquaculture and culture based fisheries development are as follows:

⁶ Reference 1.

• development of technological packages for the culture of promising species such as clarias, heterobranchus, chrysichthys and tilapia nilotica.

• creation of training facilities necessary to upgrade local capabilities

• organisation of extension services to increase fish production, employment and income in rural areas

Within this strategy, the following expenditure programme is envisaged for the period between 1991 and 1995 :

Source: Medium Term Agricultural Development Programme, 1990.

2.2. Wider development strategy.

Other projected expenditure for the fisheries sector as a whole includes US$3.5 millions for institutional strengthening, part of which can be expected to go to aquaculture and culture based fisheries. Furthermore, the expenditure on fisheries and aquaculture is to be implemented within an overall agriculture development programme which includes agricultural technology, livestock, irrigation and water resources, feeder roads, marketing and agro-processing and comes to a total of US$465.8 millions for the five year period:

MTADP Expenditure Implications 1991–1995

Source: Medium Term Agricultural Development Programme, 1989.

The potential for expansion of agriculture exists in each of the three agro-ecological zones of the country. Current strategies point to the possibility of increasing cocoa, coffee, oil palm, rubber and cola in the forest zone; of expanding maize, cotton, tobacco, root crops and legumes in the transitional zone and of expanding livestock production in the savannah. There is also potential for the expansion of rice production in valley bottoms in all parts of the country.

2.3 Extension.

One aspect of current agriculture development strategy which is of particular relevance to aquaculture and culture based fisheries development is the re-organisation of extension services. The Ministry of Agriculture has been the key ministry in the provision of these services and current strategy is to develop a comprehensive, mobile and motivated service for the support of rural producers. The large numbers of small-scale farmers in rural areas (see Section 3.2) means that effective extension is important and, in the case of aquaculture and culture based fisheries development, there is little doubt that it has been the lack of well coordinated, properly informed and technically competent extension which has prevented any real progress being achieved in these areas in the past. It is also evident that future strategy will emphasise strengthening and better coordination of agricultural extension as well as improving the links between extension and research. Fisheries services need similar improvements and, moreover, could take direct advantage of an improved agricultural extension service by using it to promote viable systems particularly in aquaculture.

Use by the Fisheries Department of the agricultural extension service would have distinct advantages and would be considerably more cost-effective than trying to service the needs of fish producers through the Fisheries Department alone. This would make it possible to promote fish production systems widely within the extensive and remotely located small-scale farming communities. The agricultural extension service, with a field staff of over 2500 in the country, has relatively close links with these communities where it could be possible to develop aquaculture. In the Ashanti Region, for example, the service covers 1621 villages with 430 field extension agents. Regular twice-monthly training programmes for extensionists and once-monthly training for supervisors have been established. The service also has communication with key-farmers and, through them, with the wider farming community.

Regional agricultural officers interviewed during the mission agreed that, if a valid aquaculture extension message were available to them, training of extension staff in aquaculture could be easily incorporated into their existing training programmes. It seems obvious that this service should be used when the conditions exist for wider promotion of aquaculture. Any other provision involving an expanded fisheries extension service could not be justified from the point of view of the long-term public expenditure commitments involved. This would remain true even if the most optimistic projections for increased fish production from aquaculture were realized.

2.4. Planned investment in irrigation.

Another important element of agricultural strategy for the next five years which is of particular relevance to aquaculture and culture based fisheries is the emphasis on the development of small-scale (less than 200 hectares) irrigation schemes and a corresponding irrigation development strategy which will favour the management of these schemes by the farmers themselves. Effort is being applied to the establishment of effective local farmers' groups, with the identification of already committed groups being the first step before projects are implemented.

In view of the close physical links between the rural communities, the reservoirs above the dams and the irrigated areas below them, and the effective control which the communities can have over development within them, it is entirely logical that aquaculture extension should be correspondingly integrated into the general extension effort in these localities. Similar priorities should also be applied-that is, the identification of committed local producer groups should be a priority before extension efforts or special projects are implemented in these areas.

2.5. Decentralisation of Planning

Ghana is divided into 10 regions for administrative purposes. These are Greater Accra, Western, Central, Eastern, Volta, Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Northern, Upper East and Upper West. Each region is subdivided into districts and these are headed by district secretaries, who are political appointees of the Government.

The recent creation of 110 districts from the previous 65 and an apparently radical devolution of powers to the local level represent an attempt by government to improve its capability to foster social and economic development through closer links with communities. In the past, government services have clearly been remote and overcentralized, poorly coordinated and planning and implementation have been weak.⁷

The districts have become, following this programme of decentralization, the focal points for planning and administration in the country. The activities of the Districts within a region are coordinated by Regional Coordinating Councils. A National Development Planning Commission has been set up to coordinate planning activities at the national level.

A number of key government services have been listed as coming under the authority of District Assemblies - that is, locally based staff in these services are required to report to and advise the assemblies. These listed departments include the agricultural and fisheries services.

The increase in the number of district-level administrative units has been from 65 to 110. The functions assigned to the new assemblies are relevant to the development of aquaculture and culture based fisheries, and, after only one year of their operation, there is evidence that some assemblies are showing considerable interest in such development.

The relevant functions of the assemblies are described in Local Government Law, 1988, P.N.G.C. 207, section 6, as follows: … a District Assembly shall -

1. be responsible for the overall development of the district, and shall ensure preparation and submission to the council for approval the development plan and budget for the district,

2. formulate programmes and strategies for the effective mobilization and utilization of the human, physical, financial and other resources in the district.

3. promote and support productive activity and social development in the district and remove any obstacles to initiative and development.

⁷ Reference 1.

Other provisions of the legislation enable assemblies to engage in joint development efforts with outside groups and to promote and encourage other persons or bodies to undertake development projects.

Assemblies consist of two thirds elected members and one third government appointed members and it was observed that, in several areas, government officials from relevant services, such as the agricultural extension services, had been appointed to the local Assemblies. The range of government services which the Assemblies have access to includes the agricultural and fisheries services, and, by the end of 1990, each district will have the services of one physical (“spatial”) and one economic development planner.

Despite the very limited funds available to them and the weak tax-base and despite their relative inexperience in local economic development, the districts can clearly act as valuable focal points for the coordination of development effort. Especially where there is a need for consultation and participation at the village and community level, their involvement in project planning and implementation could be beneficial. Significantly, many of the regional agricultural extension officers are already making use of the district assemblies as channels of communication with local farming communities and several of the regional fisheries officers have been requested by the assemblies to give advice on aquaculture development proposals.

Specific examples of local government involvement in aquaculture include a joint venture proposal between the New Juaben District Assembly and the private owner of a fish pond at Koforidua in Eastern Region and the promotion of community pond development on stool land (see Section 4.2) in Adausena, a village in the North Birim District.

The early ideas of many Assemblies, however, appear to be influenced by the pressing need to increase their sources of revenue with the result that they are considering direct management of aquaculture projects rather than taking a broader view of its development in their local communities. That is, some are anticipating raising revenue from profits from aquaculture projects under their own direct management rather than promoting its development in the wider community. The latter role may be the more appropriate development activity for local councils than the management of commercial operations.

Furthermore, the specific proposals of some assemblies involve rehabilitation of previously failed aquaculture schemes. In these, there is an obvious risk of repetition of the earlier failures especially as the underlying cause of these failures - the lack of competent government support - is still present. If adequate technical back-up from government services were available and if the links were being developed between the assemblies and successful producers or producer groups, then the assemblies could play an important role in future aquaculture development. Their primary role, however, should be the promotion and coordination of aquaculture development within their communities.

3. The Situation in Rural Areas.

3.1. Importance of agriculture.

Agriculture is extremely important to the Ghanaian economy, accounting for approximately 55% of the country's gross domestic product in 1984. It is an important source of exports and of national food supply and employs an estimated 57% of the labour force. The rural population in particular is especially dependent on agriculture or agriculture related activities.⁸

Ghana's total farm population, according to the 1984 census, is approximately 7 million people and the number of farm families approximately 2 million. The regional distribution of population and farm holdings is shown in table below:

⁸ Reference 4.

Source: 1984 Census

3.2 Migration and the predominance of smallholders.

Agriculture is also dominated by smallholders. ⁹ According to the 1984 Census, 84% of all agricultural holdings were below 1.6 hectares and these accounted for 47% of all cultivated land. The proportion of smallholders in agriculture has, however, changed substantially in recent times in response to migration between regions and between Nigeria and Ghana. In the early 1970's many Ghanians moved to Nigeria to exploit opportunities presented by the oil boom in that country. In 1983, approximately 1.2 million of these migrants were forcibly returned and settled in their villages of origin to cultivate small plots of land. This was followed by severe drought problems in 1983 which forced many of Ghana's urban poor to return to rural areas to farm for subsistence. ¹⁰

⁹ Reference 4.

These special factors resulted in large increases in all parts of the country in both the total number of farm holdings and especially in the number of holdings of less than 2 acres. This change is illustrated in the following table:

No. of Holders of 2 acres or less, 1970 and 1984.

In addition to these factors, quality of life indicators ¹¹ such as infant mortality rates, child malnutrition and educational provisions indicate that there are regional imbalances in development which contribute to out-migration from the north of the country to the more prosperous south. The regional imbalances in development are a result of poor natural endowment of the northern areas of past failure to provide basic services to these rather remote areas.

The imbalances are to some extent being redressed by large development projects such as the irrigation schemes at Vea and Tono, and by development assistance projects funded by international agencies.¹² The country's major reservoir scheme - the Akosombo Dam and the associated Lake Volta - resulted in enforced resettlement of populations which had previously inhabited areas around the Volta River. The government provided support for displaced populations through the provision of housing and farm lands in new areas. New fisheries which have been developed on the Volta Lake have generally provided a livelihood for those fishing communities whose fishing grounds were adversely affected by changes in the Volta River below the Akosombo Dam. Resettled groups - principally the Tongu people-make up the majority of fishermen on the Volta Lake and the women of these groups dominate the fish processing and marketing at all of the lakeside markets.

¹⁰ Reference 4.

¹¹ Appendix 4

¹² Reference 2.

3.3. Prevalence of subsistence agriculture.

Rural agriculture, in addition to being dominated by smallholders, is to a very large extent practised for subsistence rather than cash income purposes, and subsistence oriented farming is especially prevalent in the Northern, Upper East and Upper West regions of the country. In these areas, only 8.1%, 10.6% and 5.2% respectively of all farms produced mainly for cash. For the country as a whole, only 19.6% of farms are cultivated mainly for cash. ¹³

3.4. Smallholders' sources of income.

Reliable data on the sources of income for rural smallholders is not widely available. However, in addition to the sale of food crops, it is clear that many subsistence farmers are engaged in additional employment mainly in the form of hiring their labour within agriculture. There is also likely to be a significant level of remittances from urban to rural households. A household economic survey, for example, carried out in 1974 estimated that as much as 49% of household income was due to remittances from friends and relatives in Ghana. ¹⁴

3.5. Rural Poverty.

Surveys of rural poverty based on the 1984 Census, which was carried out immediately after the severe droughts and repatriation of Ghanians from Nigeria, estimated that 6.4 million rural people or 67.3% of the total farming population were below the Basic Needs Income level. (i.e.“… an income level below which a minimal nutritionally adequate diet plus essential non-food requirements is not affordable.” ¹⁵ When estimated in 1986, three years after the droughts and repatriation, the figure had decreased to 3.8 million people in rural areas or 54% of the total farming population. This remains a very high figure by any standards. Regional data indicate that the Northern, Upper East and Upper West, followed by Ashanti and Western Regions, contain the highest numbers of smallholders living below the poverty line. The information for the latter two regions probably reflects the numbers of farmers migrating to settle in these better endowed regions in the south of the country.

¹³ Reference 4.

¹⁴ Reference 4.

¹⁵ Reference 4.

There are, in summary, large numbers of rural poor in most areas of Ghana, including those, such as Ashanti, which have historically been regarded as rich regions. Targeting the poor for aquaculture and culture-based fisheries development is not, therefore, simply a matter of selection of regions, although it is obvious that the north of Ghana is generally worse off than the south. The problems in some regions are more likely to be centred on how to effectively reach the rural poor. These groups' access to land and other resources and their political and social influence will be weaker than that of the longer established sections of the communities in which they have settled.

3.6. Farming systems.

The main systems of farming in Ghana are traditional with low inputs and the production methods are largely dependent on simple hand tools such as hoe and cutlass. Intercropping, combined with bush-fallow shifting cultivation, is widely practised. Basic strategies are designed to reduce the risks of failure of crops rather than to maximise yields and profits.

In the forest zone, most farmers depend on tree crops combined with some food-crops. Food-crops are normally grown intercropped with common combinations being maize - plantain - coco-yam and maize or plantain with cassava. Rice is grown as a single crop.

In the transitional zone, where conditions for tree-crop production are marginal, the main cash crops are cotton, maize and tobacco and these are normally grown as single crops. Food cropping systems in the transitional zone include the following:

In the savannah zone, cash crops include cotton and tobacco and the main food cropping systems are as follows:

In Guinea savannah:

In Sudan savannah:

Livestock production is present in all the agro-ecological zones of the country but is especially important in the Upper West, Upper East and Northern Regions. The cattle are freeroaming in open grazing areas and managed by hired herdsmen, normally from the Fulani group of people, or by family members and are gathered in kraals at night. Large ruminants are uncommon in the forest zone but most farm households throughout the country have free-ranging chickens, as well as some sheep and goats. In many areas, there are also intensively managed poultry and pig production enterprises of varying sizes.

3.7. Labour.

The main source of labour for Ghana's agriculture is the family. Men undertake the tasks of land clearing and preparation whilst women and family members assist in planting, weeding and harvesting. Women are also generally responsible for the marketing of grain and starchy staple foods and for home management.

The availability of labour varies between seasons and regions. In the Savannah zone in the North, there appears to be considerable underemployment in the long dry season as witnessed by the significant out-migration of active members of the population to the South. Some of this is permanent out-migration.

The general level of labour availability within existing family agriculture is unclear as there is a dearth of detailed research, for recent years at least. However, the 1970 Census indicated that there were some 500,000 people engaged in hiring their own labour for agriculture and that slightly over 216,000 of these were permanent.

For the smallholder, as the majority of incomes are low and the production methods highly dependent on traditional, physically demanding techniques, it can be reasonably assumed that the scope for substantial additional labour input is limited. From the point of view of aquaculture and culture based fisheries development, local farming and household systems have to be assessed in more detail to gauge the likely impact of new aquaculture techniques. The costs of excavation and the distance of any ponds from the farmer's normal areas of cultivation and home activity will certainly be key factors in determining the viability of any fish production operations. For production systems, such as pond cultivation of tilapia using manures, where the labour input is small, labour availability is not likely to be a constraining factor.

4. Traditional Systems and Social Organisation

4.1. Language and ethnic groupings

Ghana is characterized by a multiplicity of ethnic groups and languages (see Map: Annex 5). As many as 50 ethnic groups are identifiable, each having its own dialect. Next to English, Twi is the most widely used language and is spoken by the Akans who are associated with the Eastern, Ashanti, Central, Brong-Ahafo and parts of the Western and Volta Regions. Twi could be regarded as the unofficial “lingua franca” of the country. The Hausa language, of Northern Nigerian origin, is widely spoken in the Northern parts of the country.

The various groups have their traditional arrangements for maintenance of group cohesion and law and order in their paramountcies. The office of Chief is traditionally vested in certain corporate bodies which, in most parts of the Southern regions of the country, are family groups descended from matrilineal ancestors and, in the Northern parts of the country, are descended from patrilineal ancestors.

Current administrative boundaries, including the recently formed districts, are broadly based on the paramountcies where the paramount chiefs exercise traditional authority. This is particulary true of the new district boundaries for the Upper East, Upper West and Northern Regions, where tribal language distribution corresponds very closely with the new administrative areas.

4.2. Land tenure

The vast majority of rural land is held in customary tenure and is commonly divided into family land and common land. The latter are known as “stool” lands in the Southern parts of the country and “skin” lands in the North. The stools and skins are the tribal symbols which are bestowed on Chiefs when they are installed. The stools and skins are passed down through generations of Chiefs, representing the permanence and continuity of the group. Stool and skin lands are in the custody of the chief and are for his up-keep as chief.

Customary tenure in family lands is generally based on usufructuary rights - i.e. by virtue of continuous cultivation - and these rights can be either heritable or only for the life of the owner or for fixed periods within the life of the owner. They can be sold or they can be restricted by provisions preventing sale.

In the traditional system, an individual acquires rights to own land in the community by virtue of residence, membership to a lineage or by tracing his, or her, genealogy to the group-this relationship could be real or fictional.

Different tenures have emerged with the development of cash crops. These can be classified into:

• corporate tenure, where a group holds land to which their members have rights. These rights cannot be alienated from the group.

• individual tenure, where the individual holds rights through purchase or inheritance as a member of a landowing group.

• share-cropping, where farmers enter into arrangements based on shares of the production with land-owners of fertile land suitable for valuable cash crops such as cocoa, oil-palm, tobacco, etc. These tenancies are based either on shares of the crop yield achieved or on shares of the cash income from the crop. Two distinct share systems have evolved - the “abunu” and the “abusa” systems. In the former, there is a fifty - fifty division between land-owner and farmer. Under the latter, the division is one third to the land owner and two thirds to the farmer.

• cash tenancy, where a fixed sum is charged per unit area and the sum is independent of the amount produced.

The proportion of farms operating under the different forms of tenure in the different regions are shown in the table below. The information demonstrates the predominance of owner/occupation throughout the country and a virtual absence of tenanted land in the poorer northern regions.

Form of rent (% of total rented)

Source: IFAD., Report of a Special Programming Mission to Ghana, 1988.

4.3. Land tenure problems

There appear to be high levels of litigation over land title in some parts of the country ¹⁶ where there is no formal land registration and where boundaries are imprecisely defined by traditional methods. In the Southern parts of the country, there is also evidence that many share cropping and other tenancy arrangements are insecure. Also, ethnic conflict in some areas over land boundaries has been reported - e.g. Konkomba - Nanumba and Peki - Tsito. Finally, where inheritance is based on the matrilineal system, women's tenure can be insecure if the husband dies intestate. In areas where the patrilineal system predominates, land ownership is less available to women.

Problems with land tenure have been known to affect agricultural development projects and could similarly affect aquaculture and culture based fisheries projects. Detailed examination of the land tenure position would have to be carried out before locations for pilot or commercial projects were selected.

16 Reference 3.

4.4. Traditional Management Systems

Rivers and water bodies, with the exception of large reservoirs, are regarded as being within the custodianship of the local tribes and the chiefs and their elders or headmen have effectively been involved in the management of these and of the local lands. Traditional management of fisheries has involved closed seasons, restrictions on fishing rights, auctioning of fishing rights and the retention of shares of catch for local chiefs. ¹⁷

Conflicts have occurred between the local rulers and the fisheries authorities. Incidents of Fisheries Department staff being attacked whilst trying to perform their official duties have been reported (Personal comm. Regional Fisheries Staff, Braimah).

Where lucrative fisheries are involved, as in parts of Lake Volta, fishermen are obliged in practice, although not in a formal legal sense, to pay dues to local chiefs. Some of the local rulers are dependent on fishermen's fees for the upkeep of their stools. In these circumstances, chiefs can be primarily concerned with their income from the fisheries and unconcerned as to whether the methods used lead to overexploitation or not. ¹⁸

Such conflicts and problems are negative examples of the actual influence of the traditional systems and they are by no means universal. Positive examples of local management by traditional groups also exist and they could be exploited to enhance culture based fisheries and aquaculture development. Fisheries officers and agricultural extensionists in the Upper East and Upper West Regions, for example, point to the existence of local fishermen and farmer groups, some of which are formally constituted self-management groups, who raise levies on members for the upkeep and repair of dams and associated irrigated land. The more committed and better established of these groups have sub-committees for difficult management functions such as land and water allocation.

The development of these independent groups would have longterm benefits for the country in that public expenditure commitments would be reduced and more of the necessary human resources for management and development would be located within the communities where they are required. The identification of strong producer groups such as these and their participation in aquaculture and culture based fisheries projects would substantially increase the chances of achieving successful outcomes.

Such a strategy would, of course, require an extension approach which emphasises encouragement and advice rather than direct instruction and supply of inputs. Moreover, given that the main opportunities for aquaculture are in integrated crop-livestock-fish farming systems, it is entirely logical that aquaculture extension messages are provided through a similarly integrated extension service.

¹⁷ Reference 7.

¹⁸ Reference 7.

4.5. Fish processing and marketing

The processing and marketing of fish is undertaken by women in Ghana and an effective system for the distribution of fish products to the most distant locations has evolved. Common processed products include smoked, dried and salted tilapia and smoked catfish. Processing is carried out using traditional, low-cost methods and the processing skills are more widely established amongst the women of those ethnic groups, such as the Fanti, Ada and the Ewe, who have had a long tradition of involvement in the fishing industry.

A variety of arrangements exists between the fishermen and women buyers but it is common for fishermen to be dependent on credit supplied by women buyers for the purchase of boats and gear and, under these arrangements, to be committed to sell their catch to those buyers. The distribution of freshwater fish products is achieved through a series of links between fishermen and associated buyers, women who specialise in wholesaling near the landing sites, buyers from distant markets and retailers in those markets. Informal credit arrangements, involving deferred payments between mutually trusted sellers and buyers, are common. The system is notable for its effectiveness in reaching distant locations, for its adaptability to a variety of raw materials, for the range of products produced and, not least, for the large number of income earning opportunities it provides for women in Ghana.

4.6. Taboos and fish preferences.

In some areas and amongst certain tribal groups, there are taboos against the consumption of certain species of fish. In particular, the Dagombas of Northern Region and the Tongu-Ewe of Lower Volta have a taboo against consuming Clarias species. Comprehensive knowledge of these or any similar taboos is not available for the whole country, but they are not likely to be widespread and the species most suited for aquaculture and culture based fisheries development are generally acceptable, with tilapia occupying in most areas a slightly less favoured position within the preferences of people than clarias. Familiarity with tilapia in the fresh form is not widely developed and, in some areas in the north of the country especially, knowledge of fish handling is limited.

4.7. Informal credit

Informal credit arrangements play a major role in rural areas in Ghana. Such credit includes loans for consumption and production needs and for emergency and social needs such as funerals. Loans are typically available from relatives, friends, landlords, traders and unregistered moneylenders. Pooling of labour amongst farmers is also common and is used for such purposes as land clearing. Most informal credit arrangements, with the exception of those involving specialised moneylenders, do not carry interest. With moneylenders, interest rates are reportedly high ¹⁹ - between 50% and 100% - and tend to be for short periods only.

The advantages of informal credit systems over the banking system are the lack of delay in provision of loans compared with the formal system. The disadvantages include the short term nature of the loans and, where the agreements are between producer and trader, the risk of overdependence and resulting poor bargaining position for farmers when selling their produce at harvest time.

¹⁹ References 1 and 4.

5. Development strategies.

5.1. Summary of existing situation.

The main features of rural societies, existing economic activity and current development strategy which are relevant to the future development of aquaculture and culture based fisheries are as follows:

• there is a large number of culturally diverse and geographically separate ethnic groups.

• traditional systems of land and water management are applied. The level of such management varies but positive examples exist and enhancement within the traditional system is possible.

• traditional influences prevail in the ways in which rural communities are organised.

• agriculture is the main form of economic activity in rural areas and this currently produces crop by-products and animal wastes which are underutilised.

• a large proportion of the rural population are small holders and, within this group, levels of poverty are high and the physical quality of life is low.

• levels of poverty are generally greater in the north of the country than in the south.

• methods of production in agriculture are mainly traditional and based on simple, low-cost technologies. The family is the main source of labour.

• informal credit systems are widely used by rural producers and they have significant advantages over the banking system especially for the small-scale producer.

• current government strategies, especially those emphasising decentralisation of planning, reorganisation of extension, development in new small-scale irrigation schemes and the identification and development of self-management by organised producer groups, have positive implications for the future development of aquaculture and culture based fisheries. Such strategies, fully implemented, could significantly increase the chances of successful development amongst small-scale producers in rural areas.

• fishing techniques, traditional fish processing, distribution and marketing systems exist but tend to be more highly developed within certain ethnic groups. Where they do not exist or are not firmly established, special extension efforts will be required.

• fish preferences are to some extent influenced by cultural factors but those species likely to be produced by aquaculture and culture based fisheries are generally acceptable to consumers.

5.2. Implications for the development of aquaculture and culture based fisheries.

The above social, economic and strategic factors have implications for the development of aquaculture and culture based fisheries in Ghana. There are implied basic needs for approaches to development and these hold true for each of the combinations of systems and environments which have been identified as being capable of sustaining technically and economically feasible fish production.

Firstly, there is a need to establish extension messages and to develop methods of extension support which are effective in reaching the rural poor. The prevalence of smallholders in rural areas and the high levels of basic needs which many of them have mean that effective extension, which is capable of reaching key farmers in small-scale farming communities, is important. The production models and methods promoted, once their basic feasibility has been demonstrated, will have to be tailored to suit the availability of resources to which smallholders have access.

Cultural diversity, linguistic variations and low levels of literacy also imply the need for an extension service which is capable of good communication with local communities. Similarly, traditional forms of social organisation and the fact that the land and water resources are effectively under the control of local groups imply the need for communication with and support at the local level.

The changes implied for extension support are, therefore, primarily a question of logistics. That is, good communication and support are dependent on numbers of field staff available and the necessary level of such support cannot be provided from a specialised fisheries and aquaculture extension service without incurring public expenditure commitments which could not be sustained in the long-term. On the other hand, the existing agricultural extension service is already structured to provide support to smallholders and is undergoing a programme of improvement which could be as beneficial to aquaculture development as it will be for development in other sub-sectors of agriculture.

With integrated fish-livestock-crop development, the case for integrating aquaculture and agricultural extension can be based on the grounds of logic alone. As the key inputs for such production are dependent on the types and methods of animal and crop production, it would be illogical and potentially inconsistent from the producer's point of view to have different personnel, responding to different programmes and lines of authority, giving advice.

There is a need, therefore, to train the agriculture extension service in aquaculture. The creation of appropriate and technically competent extension messages should come from a specialised fisheries service.

Cultural diversity, traditional, sometimes obscure, forms of organisation and the general lack of reliable detailed information also point to the need for survey of populations likely to be affected by development assistance projects. These surveys should be carried out before the locations for pilot development projects are selected and should be designed to assess the following:

• level of needs and potential for increased local fish production to meet these needs.

• level of locally available skills in fish production, handling, processing and marketing.

• nature and strength of traditional forms of control and management of land and water resources and assessment of attitudes towards innovation in production.

• security of land tenure in proposed project areas and possible problems with land tenure.

• existence and strength of commitment of any local producer groups, such as local fishermen's organisations, or individual producers.

• capability of regional fisheries service to provide competent extension messages and to support local extension staff.

• capability of local extension staff to provide comprehensive support, including aquaculture and culture based fisheries support, to local producers.

• capability of local assemblies to promote, coordinate and inform local producers.

• availability of labour, crop by-products and animal wastes within existing farming systems.

There are substantial numbers of smallholders in all rural areas of Ghana whose level of income and basic quality of life are below acceptable standards. There is, therefore, an a priori case for targeting this section of the population for development assistance. The problem of targeting such groups for assistance in aquaculture and culture based fisheries development is not, however, a simple matter of the selection of regions, such as Upper East, Upper West and Northern Regions, where the quality of life indicators suggest higher general levels of need. Rural poverty is widespread and exists in regions such as Ashanti which is naturally well endowed and where the population is generally regarded as being wealthier than the population in the north.

Moreover, before it will be possible to have an impact on the poorer sections of the community, technical competence and economic viability will have to be established. This could be best achieved in the first instance by support to existing, committed producers. Progress towards viable production, once achieved, could be the basis of pilot extension projects in which the rural poor are targeted specifically. It should be borne in mind, however, that the selection of such groups cannot be carried out solely on a regional basis.

6. Main Conclusions and Recommendations.

6.1. Conclusions.

Both the need and potential for the development of aquaculture and culture based fisheries exist in Ghana.

The need for such development is particularly acute for agricultural smallholders and their families. This section of the population is large and widely distributed throughout the country and their need for income earning opportunities, through which they may improve their basic quality of life, is particularly acute. For some, aquaculture and culture based fisheries can be means of achieving such improvement. This group is also very large numerically and successful development within it could lead to substantial increases in fish supply.

Communities are culturally diverse and traditional forms of social organisation and resource management prevail. The possibility of enhancing these for the purposes of promoting aquaculture and culture based fisheries development exists.

The chances of successful development will be increased if special attention is paid to the following:

• the development of technical competence in aquaculture and culture based fisheries in government services.

• the establishment of viable systems of aquaculture production in the private sector.

• the rationalisation of extension services to provide good support in aquaculture for smallholders.

• careful survey and selection of target populations prior to project preparation.

• consultation with and participation of local producers and producer groups in development planning.

• approaches to development which take account of the cultural diversity of communities and the strength of traditional forms of organisation and control.

6.2. Recommendations.

Following a general review of social and cultural aspects of rural communities in Ghana and of current development strategies for rural areas, and with the aim of promoting economically viable and socially beneficial aquaculture and culture based fisheries development, it is recommended that:

• extension support for aquaculture be provided through the comprehensive agriculture extension service currently being developed.

• the functions of Fisheries Department staff be re-defined and centred on specialist fisheries and aquaculture development and advisory roles to support agricultural extension staff and on the provision of extension support for culture based fisheries.

• the creation of extension messages for aquaculture be given early priority within the programmes of the Fisheries Department.

• training programmes be established for both fisheries and agricultural extension staff to put the proposed changes in extension and fisheries service functions into effect.

• priority be placed on the development of efficient, economically viable systems of production by the Fisheries Department and on their promotion, through special extension programmes with existing producers, by the agricultural extension service.

• these systems, once established, be used to develop models for production by smallholders.

• special extension efforts, in selected areas, be made to promote aquaculture and culture based fisheries by groups of smallholders once viable systems are established.

• surveys of local areas and populations be carried out during the preparation of pilot development projects and prior to the implementation of these projects to identify specific target groups n particular areas.

• such surveys include assessment of the following:

  • level of need
  • locally available skill
  • availability of labour in local farming systems
  • availability of crop by-products and animal wastes
  • existing, traditional forms of resource management and control
  • local attitudes towards innovation
  • land tenure
  • commitment and strengths of local producers
  • capability of local planning authorities
  • capability of extension and other support services

• that locations for pilot projects be selected on the basis of the information provided by such surveys.

• a primary objective of both government development efforts and specific development projects, in addition to the establishment of viable fish production systems, be the establishment of independent, locally based capability for resource management and development by producers themselves.

APPENDIX 1. Size Distribution of Agricultural Holdings, 1984.

Source: 1984 Census of Agriculture.

APPENDIX 2. Estimation of Numbers of Smallholders Below Poverty Line in 1986.

Source: IFAD. Report of a Special Programming Mission to Ghana, July 1988.

APPENDIX 3. Extent of agricultural Production for Subsistence and Sale, 1986.

Source: Agricultural Sector Survey, 1986. Giri, Oku and Fukai.

APPENDIX 4. Quality of Life Indicators.

4 (a) Infant and Child Mortality by Region, Ave. 1978– 1987.

Source: Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, 1988. Ghana Statistical Service, Accra.

4 (b) Child Malnutrition by Region. (1986).

Mean % of Children Below 80% of Harvard Weight/Age Standard

Source: Catholic Relief Services, Accra.

4 (c) Proportion of Adults who have Attended School (1980).

Source: The Dimensions and Characteristics of Rural Poverty in Ghana. Ewusi, University of Legon, 1984.

APPENDIX 5. Map showing approximate breakdown of main tribal and language groups in Ghana.

MAP SHOWING APPROXIMATE BREAKDOWN
OF MAIN TRIBAL AND LANGUAGE GROUPS IN GHANA

7. References.

1. Ghana Medium Term Agricultural Development Programme. World Bank/Government of Ghana. 1990.

2. Socioeconomic Profile and the Effects of Irrigation on the Kamba River Basin. Ewusi, Seini and Aryeetev. Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research, University of Ghana, 1989.

3. Report of the FAO Sponsored Seminar on Land Tenure, Agrarian Systems and Rural Development. Accra. June, 1985.

4. Report of Special Programming Mission to Ghana. IFAD., July, 1988.

5. Ghana National Food and Nutrition Policy and Plan of Action. 1989–1991. FAO/WHO. Nov., 1988.

6. The Status of Aquaculture in Ghana. Asafo, C.K., Ministry of Agriculture, Accra, May, 1990.

7. Modern and Traditional Fisheries Management Systems in the Sahelian Zone in Ghana. Braimah, L.I., Ministry of Agriculture, Accra, May, 1990.