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Large scale production nursery for barramundi (Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia)
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Sea cage farm in Hong Kong SAR, China
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Cage grow-out farm (Australia)
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Head of barramundi
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Although introduced for aquaculture into a number of other countries, as noted in the previous section of this fact sheet, the only countries that have reported production to FAO so far are shown in this map.
![]() Main producer countries of Lates calcarifer (FAO Fishery statistics, 2006)
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DISEASE | AGENT | TYPE | SYNDROME | MEASURES |
Viral nervous necrosis (VNN) | Lates calcarifer encephalitis virus (LcEV) – a betanodavirus | Virus | Pale or dark colouration; erratic swimming behaviour; spiral swimming; bloating; 'fainting'; extensive vacuolation of the brain & spinal cord; generally encountered during hatchery phase | Screening of broodstock; low larval rearing densities; optimal larval nutrition; improved broodstock nutrition; improved hatchery hygiene |
Lymphocystis | Lymphocystis virus | Virus | Wart-like growths on skin & fins; generally only fatal if infection severe & associated with very poor environmental conditions | Removal of infected fish; improved environment |
Vibriosis | Vibrio harveyi; Vibrio spp. | Bacteria | Marine fish with darkening; lethargy; anorexia; reddened ulcerations on body; reddened abdominal fluid; associated with nursery systems, poor environment & skin trauma | Improved environment; antibiotic treatment |
Bacterial haemorrhagic septicaemia | Aeromonas hydrophila; Aeromonas sobria; Aeromonas caviae; Aeromonas spp.; Pseudomonas sp. | Bacteria | Freshwater fish with irregular reddened skin ulcerations; lethargy; anorexia; reddened abdominal fluid; pale gills; associated with poor environment & skin trauma | Improved environment; antibiotic treatment |
Integumentary bacteriosis | Aeromonas sobria; Aeromonas hydrophila; Vibrio harveyi; Vibrio alginolyticus | Bacteria | Irregular reddened skin ulcerations; loss of scales; associated with poor environment & skin trauma | Improved environment; increased water exchange |
Streptococcosis | Streptococcus iniae | Bacterium | Darkened fish; anorexia; pale gills; reddened abdominal fluid; reddened abdominal organs & inner wall | Antibiotic treatment; vaccination |
Columnaris disease | Flavobacterium columnare; Flavobacterium johnsoniae; & Flavobacterium sp. (gliding forms) in freshwater Tenacibaculum marinimum in seawater |
Bacteria | Pale skin patches on dorsal surface behind dorsal fin & on caudal peduncle; lethargy; most commonly occurs in nursery phase; in older juveniles a mouth form with erosion of skin around upper & lower jaws has been seen; associated with overstocking, tank rearing, poor hygiene & skin trauma | Treatment in potassium permanganate or copper baths may help in early disease; antibiotic treatment |
Bacterial gill disease | Various bacteria, Flavobacterium spp., Cytophaga spp. | Bacteria | Swimming at water surface; gulping; rapid opercular movement; excess mucus on gills; white patches on gills; most commonly occurs in nursery phase | Improve water quality; treatment with salinity reversal, potassium permanganate or quaternary ammonium baths; increase water exchange; reduce stocking density |
Bacterial peritonitis | Various Gram-negative & Gram-positive bacteria including Vibrio harveyi & Aeromonas hydrophila | Bacteria | Darkened fish; lethargy; swollen abdomen; adhesions & bad smelling fluid in abdomen; abdominal fistulas; more common in recirculation systems | Cull affected fish; antibiotic treatment |
Bacterial enteritis | Various Gram-negative bacteria | Bacteria | Acute disease in intensive larval rearing systems; anorexia; pin heads; darkened fish & death | Cull affected larval batch |
Fin and tail rot | Aeromonas spp.; Pseudomonas spp.; Vibrio spp.; Flavobacterium spp.; Cytophaga spp. | Bacteria | Erosion of soft tissue in fins and tail; may extend to involve entire tail & caudal peduncle | Improve environment; reduce stocking density |
Epitheliocystis | Epitheliocystis organism – a Chlamydia | Bacterium | Swimming at water surface; rapid opercular movements; disease rare but seen in marine fish & in recirculation systems | None known |
White spot | Ichthyophthirius multifiliis in freshwater Cryptocaryon irritans in marine |
Protozoa | 'Flashing'; rubbing skin on surfaces; anorexia; swimming at water surface; white spots on skin & fins | Treatment with salinity reversal, formalin baths or combinations; treatment in copper bath for marine fish |
Chilodonelliasis | Chilodonella spp.; Chilodonella hexasticha | Protozoa | Swimming at water surface; rapid opercula movement; flared opercula; seen in poor environmental conditions & in weakened fish | Treatment with salt, formalin or potassium permanganate bath or combinations |
Trichodiniasis | Trichodina complex spp. | Protozoa | Swimming at water surface; rapid opercular movements; excess gill mucus; typically follows cold water temperatures, high organic loads & high stocking densities | Increase water exchange; treatment with salt or formalin bath |
Ichthyobodosis (costiasis) | Ichthyobodo necator | Protozoa | 'Flashing'; rubbing skin on surfaces; opaque patches on skin; raised scales; swimming at water surface; rapid opercular movements; flared opercula | Treatment with salinity reversal; formalin or potassium permanganate bath |
Piscinoodiniasis | Piscinoodinium sp. | Protozoa | Found in freshwater: In young fish opaque patches or a greenish discolouration of the skin; patches of skin lifting of surface & ulcers In older fish rapid opercular movements; excess gill mucus; dark green gill colour | Treatment with salt bath |
Amyloodiniasis | Amyloodinium ocellatum | Protozoa | Found in marine conditions: In young fish opaque patches or a green discolouration of the skin; patches of skin lifting of surface & ulcersIn older fish rapid opercular movements; excess gill mucus; dark green gill colour More common in broodstock and in raceways; associated with low water temperatures or rapid drops in temperature | Treatment with freshwater, copper, formalin or hydrogen peroxide bath |
Red sore disease | Epistylis sp. | Protozoa | Skin ulcers in freshwater pond fish; raised fluffy surface & secondary bacterial infections | Reduce organic levels in water; treatment with formalin bath |
Gill fluke | Diplectanum sp.; Dactylogyrus sp. | Monogean trematodes | Rapid opercular movements; anorexia; white areas on gills | Treatment with salinity reversal, formalin, organo-phosphate or praziquantel bath |
Skin fluke | Neobenedinia melleni; Gyrodactylus spp. | Monogean trematodes | Marine fish with opaque cornea; white patches on skin; skin ulcers; associated with high salinity & cool water temperatures | Treatment in freshwater or hydrogen peroxide bath |
Myxosporidiosis | Henneguya sp.; Kudoa sp. | Spore-forming protozoa | Disease uncommon but histologically spore cysts seen in gill filaments (Henneguya sp.) & brain (Kudoa sp.) | None known |
Microsporidiosis | Pleistophora sp. | Spore-forming protozoa | Raised lumps on skin; soft white nodules in muscle | None known |
Integumentary mycosis | Saprolegnia spp.; Achlya spp. | Fungi | Raised, fluffy growths on skin & fins; associated with low water temperatures & skin trauma | Salinity reversal and formalin baths; do not handle fish when water temperatures low |
Branchiomycosis | Brachiomyces sp.; Achlya spp. | Fungi | Swimming at water surface; rapid opercular movements; white & red patches (mottled appearance) on gills; associated with cold water temperatures & high organic loads | No treatment known; reduce organic load & increase water exchange |
Fish louse | Argulus sp. | Copepod | Disc-shaped parasite visible on skin; red foci; darkening | Treatment in organophosphate bath |
Anchor worm | Lernaea sp. | Copepod | Thin body of female parasite visible on skin with small red ulcer where parasite penetrates skin | Treatment in organophosphate bath |
Global aquaculture production of Lates calcarifer
(FAO Fishery statistics) ![]() |
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Barlow, C.G. 1981. Breeding and larval rearing of Lates calcarifer (Bloch) (Pisces: Centropomidae) in Thailand. New South Wales State Fisheries Report. 8 pp. New South Wales Department of Fisheries, Sydney, Australia. |
Buendia, R. 1997. Seabass grow-out and marketing: lessons from Australia, Malaysia and Thailand. SEAFDEC Asian Aquaculture 19: 27-28. |
Copland, J.W. & Grey, D.L. 1987. Management of wild and culture sea bass / barramundi (Lates calcarifer): proceedings of an international workshop held at Darwin, N.T., Australia, 24-30 September 1986. ACIAR Proceedings No. 20, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, Australia. 210 pp. |
Johnston, W.L. 1998. Commercial barramundi farming – estimating profitability. Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane, Australia. 16 pp. |
Phillips, M.J. 1998. Tropical Mariculture and Coastal Environmental Integrity. In: S.S. De Silva (ed), Tropical Mariculture, pp. 17-69. Academic Press, London, England. |
Rimmer, M.A. 1995. Barramundi Farming – An Introduction. Queensland Department of Primary Industries Information Series, QI95020. 26 pp. Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane, Australia. |
Rimmer, M.A. 2003. Barramundi. In: J.S. Lucas & P.C. Southgate (eds), Aquaculture: Farming Aquatic Animals and Plants, pp. 364-381. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, England. pp. 364–381. |
Rimmer, M.A. & Russell, D.J. 1998. Aspects of the Biology and Culture of Lates calcarifer. In: S.S. De Silva (ed.). Tropical Mariculture, pp. 449–476. Academic Press, London England. |
Wu, R. 1995. The environmental impact of marine fish culture: towards a sustainable future. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 31:159–166. |