ANNEX C: WORKING PAPER ON OPERATING PRINCIPLES FOR SUSTAINABLE SHRIMP CULTURE[4]

Purpose of this document

This Working Paper attempts to synthesize and distil the core elements to be found in the various documents that propose operating principles and management practices for sustainable shrimp farming. In so doing it takes account of the diversity of shrimp farming and development conditions throughout the world. It is therefore generic in nature, and aims to focus attention on key areas of operation, and the various possible routes to sustainable shrimp culture, rather than prescribing in detail appropriate management practices. The term “operating principles” rather than “generic good management practices” has therefore been used throughout this document.

A section on farm group or sector level operating principles is also included, since incentives to comply with many farm-level operating principles will depend upon collective action by groups of farmers within an aquatic system. This is particularly important where small-scale farmers, each of who may have a limited capability to influence the sector sustainability but who collectively have a major impact and without whose contribution efforts aimed at promoting sustainability will be severely hampered, dominate the sector. Furthermore several of the sustainable development objectives that form the rationale for compliance will not be achieved without organized and collective action.

Although this paper, as with most existing codes, will focus on operating principles, it should be recognized that farmers alone do not represent the entire shrimp farming sector and that there are many ancillary activities that will have an impact on the development and the adoption of specific GMPs. Broodstock suppliers and hatcheries represent an important production sector whose activities and management practices have a major bearing on an individual farmer’s ability to comply with the operating principles presented here, and corresponding GMPs. On the supplier side, companies or individuals providing farmers with goods or services also have a significant role to play in supporting and encouraging GMPs. Feed and chemical suppliers in particular can have a major impact on the development of GMPs through improvements in their products and by extending knowledge about their proper use. It is outside the scope of this consultation to consider the roles of input suppliers in detail. However, these should be considered in any future discussion on the development and implementation of GMPs for shrimp culture. These issues are discussed in more detail in the Working Paper “Guidelines for the Development and Implementation of Situation-specific GMPs at the National or Sub-national Level”.

In developing this working paper a wide range of documents have been consulted, specifically the various existing codes of practice as well as a number of case studies which have been developed as part of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Consortium Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment.

It is not possible to be highly specific in terms of universal good management practices due to the diversity of culture systems employed, site and location specific factors and the rapid rate of development of the technology associated with pond and farm management techniques. In addition, market factors play a role in the economic feasibility of particular practices. Nonetheless, it is possible to define a set of operating principles that might serve as the basis for developing situation specific GMPs.

The document therefore provides: (1) To provide an overview and synthesis of core elements of the various codes of conduct for shrimp culture which have recently been developed or are under development in various countries; and (2) Building on this synthesis, the various case studies undertaken under the WB/NACA/FAO/WWF initiative, and the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, to provide a draft set of operating principles that are widely applicable in shrimp culture throughout the world.

Some possibilities for measuring performance (Performance Criteria) are also given, and these should be further developed and refined in relation to specific management practices developed at local level. These criteria should be as objective as possible, and form an integral part of the overall process of identifying and agreeing GMPs[5].

The accompanying working paper, “Draft Guidelines for the Development and Implementation of Situation-specific GMPs at the National or Sub-national Level”, discusses in detail how the operating principles presented here might be adapted and implemented in specific situations.

Introduction and background

Overview of existing Codes[6]

Many of the existing codes appear to be based on the traditional model of earthen pond farm systems. However, recent developments in intensive culture systems and recirculation technology may have a significant impact on existing GMPs[7]. For example, many of the GMPs related to site selection recommend the avoidance of sandy soils and the need for a good supply of clean water of a given quality. However, as lining ponds becomes more economical, the need for a strong emphasis on soil quality characteristics is much reduced. Similarly, as the technology for water treatment and water quality improvement develops, there may be less need to focus on water supplies that meet strict criteria as long as the source water quality can be economically improved.

What are referred to as GMPs or BMPs in the various codes actually represent a mixture of items varying from re-statements of objectives and principles to specific farm practices. In some cases, individual farm GMPs and wider sector management objectives are included under the same heading. Very few of the codes set down clear objectives or criteria for the proposed “good” management practices, nor do they offer clear performance criteria for measuring or evaluating the success of the GMPs in meeting objectives.

Figure 1: A hierarchical structure to facilitate the rational development of situation specific GMPs

A framework for the development of situation specific GMPs.

The following sections present a set of objectives corresponding to the various dimensions of sustainable development, a set of operating principles which should contribute to the achievement of these objectives, and some performance criteria which should allow for the measurement of progress (Figure 1). The operating principles, and associated performance criteria should provide a clear basis and starting point for the development of situation specific GMPs. Practical guidance on how to go about this is found in the accompanying working paper Guidelines for the Development and Implementation of Situation-specific GMPs at the National or Sub-national Level.

Costs and benefits of adopting GMPs

Cost of implementation is a major constraint to some of the operating principles, especially for small farmers. Many small farmers from rural communities in developing countries focus on short-term profitability. Where rice farmers have converted to shrimp farming, for example, the massive disparity between incomes from rice and shrimp as a crop, tend to convince farmers that the risk, even when it is thought to be high, is worth the reward.

Although ideally a GMP would carry no cost penalty it is possible that farmers who adopt and comply with some GMPs will experience in the short run a reduction in profitability due to higher production costs[8]. In the long run, the adoption of GMPs, if widely and consistently applied at the individual farm and sector levels, would be expected to result in a higher, more stable and more valuable production output. Moreover, compliance with a recognized system of GMPs may deliver a price premium to the producer because the product is viewed to have been produced in a responsible manner, yielding high and consistent product quality and conforming with social and environmental objectives. However, at present, there is very little evidence of trickle-down benefits arising from adoption of GMPs. One barrier to this, especially in Asian countries, is the system of selling shrimp through brokers or auctions at major markets. This effectively breaks the link between the producer and the processor.

It is therefore important to determine the marginal benefits and costs accruing to the farmer, or group of farmers, from the implementation of GMPs. If the net benefit of adopting GMPs is positive, then farmers will be more likely to adopt the GMPs. However, where the benefits of adopting GMPs are not obvious or are insufficient (through increased costs or reduced profitability) farmers may not adopt the GMPs. In these situations, second best options may need to be looked at and a combination of GMPs which currently produce the highest net benefits and a strategy for continuous efforts for further improvements may be the best solution.

Objectives for ‘good’ management practices

It is proposed that good management practices are those that make aquaculture more sustainable and more successful. The FAO definition of sustainable development is as follows:

Sustainable development is the management and conservation of the natural resource base and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generations. Such sustainable development (in the agriculture, forestry and fisheries sectors) conserves land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable.

Objective 1:	Use land and water which is suitable for sustained shrimp production
Objective 2:	Conserve sensitive aquatic habitats and important ecosystem functions
Objective 3:	Manage soil resources and earthworks to minimize impacts on surrounding environments
Objective 4:	Minimize impacts on local water resources
Objective 5:	Avoid release or escape of exotic species and transgenics into the environment
Objective 6:	Responsible use of chemicals that may impact adversely on ecosystems and human health
Objective 7:	Maximize efficiency of resource use and minimize waste outputs
Objective 8:	Reduce dependence on wild stocks for farmed shrimp production
Objective 9:	Implement shrimp health practices to reduce risks of disease in farmed and wild stocks
Objective 10:	Optimize social and economic benefits to the wider community and country
Objective 11:	Conduct shrimp farm operations to minimize impacts on surrounding resource users
Objective 12:	Ensure the rights and welfare of staff in farm operations

These objectives for sustainable shrimp culture should not be considered in isolation and are considered to be widely relevant, although priorities and requirements for implementation may vary between farms and countries.

In some cases it may be necessary to adopt a suite of GMPs in order to meet one of these objectives. Conversely, some GMPs will contribute to several of these objectives.

Ideally, objectives to promote “sustainable” aquaculture would automatically lead to “successful” aquaculture. It is important to define clearly what is meant by “successful” aquaculture and to establish and agree realistic objectives for success, including the time frame for their impact. From a business standpoint, GMPs should preferably demonstrate a clear benefit, either tangible (reduced costs, higher profits) or intangible (better reputation, reduced potential for conflict). Business objectives[9] associated with the adoption of GMPs might include:

• Maximize return on investment within a reasonable time frame while meeting the sustainability objectives
• Maximize benefits of compliance (both tangible and intangible) to farmers
• Ensure that the benefits of compliance can be captured at all points in the value chain;
• Maximize long-term added value

Farm level operating principles

The following general-operating principles should help farmers meet many of the objectives listed above.

Shrimp farmers should:

• Comply with all legal and regulatory requirements governing the placement, management and operation of the farm.
• Strive to understand the nature of their business and the management and operation of a shrimp farm.
• Keep abreast of new developments in the practice of responsible shrimp farming.
• Associate with others to establish effective representational and organizational structures so that the effects of groups of farms can be adequately managed and reported, and so that agreement on appropriate group level action to promote sustainability can be reached and implemented.
• Establish an effective farm level monitoring and reporting system. This should include, at minimum, regular checks and reporting on:
  • Water quality;
  • Feeding times and quantities;
  • Production parameters (stock growth, biomass, mortality estimates etc.)
  • Stock health;
  • Chemical use;
  • Effluent water quantity and quality; and
  • expenditure and income

• Ensure that farm staff are adequately trained in shrimp husbandry and understand the principles of environmentally responsible shrimp production.
• Apply the precautionary approach (i.e. farmers should more carefully plan and rigorously evaluate developments and activities that have uncertain implications for the environment.).
• Purchase only comprehensively labeled products produced in line with manufacturing standards and that are appropriate for the use to which they are put.
• Insist that suppliers provide appropriate and reliable information on their products and their use.
• Continually strive to improve production and environmental standards within reasonable business constraints.

Investors and owners of shrimp farms should:

• commit to a long-term investment and strive towards consistent, efficient production of shrimp in an environmentally and socially responsible manner.

Performance criteria:

• Farm owners possess clear title or right to the land or some other legal land concession agreement.
• Where required, appropriate permits available and up to date.
• Existence of an environmental monitoring programme.
• Adequate records available for inspection (production, environment and feed/chemical use).
• Purchasing standards for supplies are available and adhered to.
• Farm manual of production procedures or standard operating procedure.
• Staff qualifications and length of service.

The constraints to these general principles may include:

• Lack of appropriate legal and regulatory framework or poor enforcement of existing framework.
• Size and cost limitations for individual small farm EIAs. Where small farms predominate it would be impractical for every farm to conduct its own EIA. The cost of conducting a meaningful EIA would also be prohibitive for small-scale farmers.
• In many areas, particularly where a zoning system for aquaculture does not exist, small farms develop gradually, generally following the success of the initial farms operations. It would be impractical and unreasonable to expect the first few small farms to conduct an EIA to cover the extent of eventual development. In such cases, no mechanisms may be available to ensure that shrimp farm development does not exceed the maximum sustainable level for the area.
• Lack of agreed methods to determine “carrying capacity” or “maximum sustainable production capacity” of a given environment or area.
• Farmers record keeping - lack of appreciation of record keeping, literacy rates of farm staff.
• Availability of adequately educated or qualified staff.
• Quality of available inputs not often under the control of the farmer

Objective 1: Use land and water which is suitable for sustained shrimp production

Objective 2: Conserve sensitive aquatic habitats and important ecosystem functions[10]

Operating principles at the farm level

• Construct new ponds after following a rigorous site selection process (components of the site selection process need to be elaborated as part of a system of GMPs)
• Existing farms should plan expansions, modifications and operation to comply with agreed criteria (criteria could be either described in a system of GMPs or mandated by regulations)

Objective 3: Manage soil resources and earthworks to minimize impacts on surrounding environments

Operating principles at the farm level

• Employ techniques and engineering practices to minimize erosion and salinisation during construction and operation.
• Employ techniques to minimize disturbance of acid-sulfate soils during construction and operation.
• Minimize creation of degraded areas such as unused soil piles and borrow pits

Objective 4: Minimize impacts on local water resources

Operating principles at the farm level

• Optimize quality of discharge into natural water systems
• Minimize impacts of water use on hydraulics of natural water systems
• Minimize physical and chemical impacts on ground water resources

Objective 5: Avoid release or escape of exotic species and transgenics into the environment

Operating principles at the farm level

• Farmers should undertake to work with local species except where introductions have been made responsibly and following appropriate protocols and safeguards;
• Conform with national and international protocols on the transfer and introduction of alien species;
• Where alien species or non-native strains are used, take maximum precautions to prevent escape of introduced stocks;
• Transgenics should only be used where such use has official approval and after appropriate safeguards have been put in place to avoid adverse environmental effects

Objective 6: Responsible use of chemicals that may impact adversely on ecosystems and human health

Operating principles at the farm level

• Chemicals should be used as little as possible, consistent with the need to maintain pond environment and shrimp health
• Records should be maintained regarding use of chemicals in ponds and hatcheries
• Train farm staff in safe handling of chemicals
• Ensure that chemicals used are effective for the purpose and are used in accordance with standard techniques or manufacturers’ instructions regarding dosage, withdrawal period, proper use, storage, disposal, and other constraints on the use of a chemical including environmental, human and food safety precautions.

Objective 7: Maximize efficiency of resource use and minimize waste outputs

Operating principles at the farm level

• Carefully monitor use of essential resources on the farm and adopt a strategy for maximizing efficiency in their use

Objective 8: Reduce dependence on wild stocks for farmed shrimp production

Operating principles at the farm level

• Preserve genetic diversity of natural stocks
• Use hatchery-reared postlarvae and domestication to enhance culture performance and health

Objective 9: Implement shrimp health practices to reduce risks of disease in farmed and wild stocks

Operating principles at the farm level

• Maintain biosecurity
• Implement technologies (health management protocols) that reduce stress
• Ensuring good quality standards of shrimp post-larvae
• Responsible trans-boundary movement of live shrimp
• Implement management strategies to avoid spread of shrimp disease off farm

Objective 10: Optimize social and economic benefits to the wider community and country

Operating principles at the farm level

• Being socially responsible within community standards and values
• Encourage participation of local people in shrimp culture

Objective 11: Conduct shrimp farm operations to minimize impacts on surrounding resource users

• Conduct shrimp farm operations to minimize impacts on surrounding resource users

Objective 12: Ensure the rights and welfare of staff in farm operations

Operating principles at the farm level

• Governments should develop and implement appropriate labor regulations for shrimp farm activities
• Conform to all relevant national labor regulations
• Maintain healthy and safe living and working conditions
• Provide appropriate channels to address staff grievances

Sector level operating principles

Many of the problems associated with shrimp culture could, in theory, be addressed by the widespread adoption of farm level good management practices based on the foregoing principles. However, such an approach cannot fully address issues associated with environmental capacity, and certain aspects of disease management. While an individual farm adopting GMPs may have minimal impact on the environment, a large number of such farms will eventually face problems related to the density and pattern of development, cumulative impacts on water quality, and steadily increased risk of disease exchange and spread[11]. Furthermore, shrimp farmers may find themselves at risk as a result of steadily declining water quality related to the activities of other resource users. Co-ordinated and co-operative action will be required to address these problems, initiated either by government, or by associations of small farmers. In some cases more integrated management of all activities utilizing an aquatic system may be required - in other words, more integrated coastal management.

While the problem is implicitly recognized in several existing codes of practice, explicit solutions are few. In Sri Lanka, specific recommendations have been made to organize small farms in “clusters” for management purposes. Other recommendations typically concern improved information about levels of shrimp farming activity, through registration, licensing and monitoring procedures.

Most of the objectives for GMPs relate to environmental quality within an aquatic system, and socio-economic well-being in general. Performance in meeting these objectives cannot be measured at farm level. Some performance monitoring must therefore take place at a higher level, and this again will require government initiatives and/or co-operative action by farmers. Since these are general issues of interest to all sectors, it makes sense for the government to play a co-ordinating role in this - even if this is restricted to promotion and facilitation.

Conflict related to shrimp farm development has often arisen as a result of ambiguities in use rights and title to land/water in the coastal zone. Again, farm level GMPs cannot adequately address this problem.

The incentive to comply with many GMPs will depend on the ability of the farmer to capture the benefits of compliance. Many of these benefits will only be realized if the majority (and in some cases all) of farmers within a specified aquatic system adopt the GMPs. In other words collective adoption will be required to achieve collective benefits.

A final problem relates to consistency of approach between sectors. If, for example, shrimp farming GMPs do not allow for development in certain habitat types (such as mangrove) then for this to be effective, similar codes need to be established for agriculture and charcoal making; and forestry in mangrove areas should adopt GMPs designed to promote its biodiversity, and its functions as nursery areas or protection zones. Furthermore, as noted under the farm level GMPs, government or associations of user groups must agree on the nature of valuable habitat and ecosystem functions and how they are to be conserved before appropriate farm level GMPs can be developed and adopted.

General

Governments should establish a registration and reporting system for shrimp culture. There is a strong case for the introduction of a permit system. Without such a system, the pressure which governments can place on shrimp farmers to behave responsibly will always be limited.

Groups of farmers operating within a particular aquatic system, should form an association or representative body. Where this does not occur through direct self interest of farmers, governments should consider making this a condition for operating permit. Without such an association the burden on governments to manage the sector will be very high.

Governments should collaborate with shrimp farmers and other stakeholders to produce sustainable aquaculture development plans (ideally as components in integrated coastal management plans) for defined aquatic systems; such plans should incorporate codes of conduct and practice, and take full account of the interests of other resource users.

A system for reporting the quality of the environment and socio-economic conditions, on an annual basis, for defined aquatic systems associated with the activities of a specified group of farmers, should be developed by governments and/or farmer associations.

Objective 1: Use land and water which is suitable for sustained shrimp production

Objective 2: Conserve sensitive aquatic habitats and important ecosystem functions[12]

Operating principles at the sector (off-farm) level

• Existing farms should plan expansions, modifications and operation to comply with agreed criteria Governments should promote shrimp farm development through selected integrated coastal area planning and management procedures, as applicable to local circumstances, with special emphasis on:
  • protection of critical habitats;
  • assimilative capacity of water bodies exposed to shrimp farm effluent;
  • encouraging collective action in farm clusters, i.e. large areas covered by many farms - this may include collective approaches to multiple effluent management, joint liability schemes for co-operative management or even re-development of the farm cluster areas.

• Governments should ensure that use and property rights are clearly defined in the coastal zone, and that these are compatible with Objective 10 (Optimize social and economic benefits to the wider community and country)
• Governments should make information available on suitable site selection criteria for shrimp farming, and identify locations and possibly zones suitable for shrimp farm development. In identifying such criteria, locations and zones, governments should take due account of:
  • the range of site conditions suited to different kinds of shrimp culture;
  • the potential of sites for alternative activities;
  • the interests of other resource users;
  • the practical issues of land ownership and access;
  • the location and functioning of valuable habitat and physical ecosystem functions;
  • desirability of transparency in planning and approval processes.

• Shrimp culture should be integrated into rural development planning, as it has potential for poverty alleviation through direct involvement of rural people in aquaculture production, as well as through employment and or involvement in off-farm activities.

Objective 3: Manage soil resources and earthworks to minimize impacts on surrounding environments

Operating principles at the sector (off-farm) level

• Zoning and site selection should include consideration of soil characteristics, suitability and appropriate use.
• In granting permits or licenses proponents should be required to demonstrate how the following issues will be addressed:(the following as examples):
  • land clearing/vegetation management
  • avoidance or management of Potential Acid Sulfate Soils (PASS) or Acid Sulfate Soils (ASS) during construction.
  • stormwater management during construction and operation
  • contingency plans for failure of environmental control measures
  • rehabilitation measures in the event of a failed or abandoned venture, (e.g. lodging an environmental bond)
  • design to minimize erosion

• Environmental performance criteria, standards and type of assessment, for new and existing farms, for example;

Performance criteria

• Annual performance audit by licensing authority or certified third party. Incentive based, poor performance results in increased level of inspection (with increased costs). Good performance rewarded with reduced audit frequency (reduced costs)
• Random or scheduled compliance monitoring
• Inspection in response to self reported emergency
• Inspection in response to complaint

Objective 4: Minimize impacts on local water resources

Operating principles at the sector (off-farm) level

• Government and/or farmer associations, in collaboration with other water resource users, should agree on appropriate quality standards for local water resources.
• Government and/or farmer associations should develop and implement a strategy to maintain these standards.

Performance criteria

• Water resource standards not exceeded

Objective 5: Avoid release or escape of exotic species and transgenics into the environment

Operating principles at the sector (off-farm) level

• Translocation has two components, genetic and disease. Issues to be considered include:
  • displacement or loss of native species;
  • habitat modification, destruction or loss;
  • changes to or loss of genetic diversity

• Translocation issues should also be considered as part of an Import Risk Assessment.
• Governments should enforce internationally and nationally agreed protocols in respect of release of exotic species or genetically modified organisms.
• Develop regulatory mechanisms for the safe introduction of exotic species.
• Develop capacity for the safe introduction of exotic species where these are approved.
• Where suitable native species are available, they should be used in preference to the introduction of exotic species.

Performance criteria

• Impact of escapes

Objective 6: Responsible use of chemicals that may impact adversely on ecosystems and human health

Operating principles at the sector (off-farm) level

• Government should establish regulations relating to the safe use and handling of chemicals for use in aquaculture and other activities;
• Government and/or farmer associations and/or industry should provide information, training and facilities on disease diagnosis and correct treatment protocols, and in relation to other uses of chemicals;
• Government should prohibit the unrestricted sale of antibiotics whose unregulated use could undermine their effectiveness in the treatment of human disease.

Performance criteria

• Regulations published and complied with.
• Frequency and quantity of chemicals used in sample areas.
• Ecosystem and human health not adversely affected

Objective 7: Maximize efficiency of resource use and minimize waste outputs

Operating principles at the sector (off-farm) level

• Governments and producer associations should promote the use of management systems and technology that makes efficient use of resources such as PL, water, chemicals, land, energy and labor.
• Government should promote the supply of safe, high quality feeds for shrimp culture in line with guidelines for good practice for manufacturing and use. Governments should encourage companies to provide information on nutrition and ingredients on feed labels.
• Governments and producer associations should encourage the use of settlement facilities and bio-remediation to reduce waste outputs and encourage the creation of marketable by-products.
• Farmer organizations should monitor and evaluate feed use and performance amongst their members, and provide periodic reports on these issues to their members, feed manufacturers and relevant government agencies.
• Government extension services should promote farming systems which are compatible with the use of local resources.
• Government and producer organizations should encourage the development of markets for waste-based by-products (e.g. sludge, shrimp processing wastes) and/or share information on viable markets.

Objective 8: Reduce dependence on wild stocks for farmed shrimp production

Operating principles at the farm level

• Preserve genetic diversity of natural stocks.
• Use hatchery-reared postlarvae and domestication to enhance culture performance and health.

Objective 9: Implement shrimp health practices to reduce risks of disease in farmed and wild stocks

Operating principles at the sector (off-farm) level

• Governments should develop National Strategies and Policy Frameworks to support shrimp health management. Key points among the strategies would be:
  • Commitment to development and implementation of a Shrimp Health Plan within the National Aquatic Animal Health Programme. The plan to be implemented in a phased manner consistent with capability, resources and priority. In particular, capacity building and development of infrastructure; and
  • Development of protocols on movement and compliance should be consistent with existing protocols and agreements, namely the ‘Asia Regional Technical Guidelines on Health Management for the Responsible Movement of Live Aquatic Animals’ and the International Aquatic animal Health Code 3^rd edition Office International des Epizooties (OIE), which are designed to address the requirements of the WTO SPS.

• Key Components of a Shrimp Health Plan within the National Aquatic Animal Health Programme
  • Health Certification and Quarantine Measures including methods for screening and diagnostics;
  • Disease Surveillance and Reporting;
  • Zoning;
  • Import Risk Analysis;
  • Adequate data for epidemiological analysis;
  • Development of Regional Identification and Diagnostics Resource Centres servicing a number of countries; and
  • Shrimp disease problems are a trans-boundary issue requiring regional and international co-operation.

• Development of Regional Shrimp Health Management Plans for zoning, movement, surveillance and quarantine issues.
• Accreditation of hatchery practices for production of good quality post larvae or extending to production of ‘high health’ or specific pathogen free (SPF) post larvae.
• Development of regional disease diagnostic capability levels 1-3 as appropriate.
• Carry out on-farm trials of disease management practices and disseminate validated programmes through extension.

Objective 10: Optimize social and economic benefits to the wider community and country

Operating principles at the sector (off-farm) level

• Governments and producer associations should work together to insure that producers obey all laws relating to their operations.
• Governments and producer associations should work to insure the rights of those individuals and communities who choose to take part in the shrimp farming sector as well as those who choose to purse their traditional use of resources.
• Governments and producer associations should recognize the social and environmental impacts of operational failures and take all reasonable steps to reduce the rate of failure in shrimp farming.
• Governments should facilitate the ability of all resource users to address resource conflict issues.
• Governments should work with the private sector to maximize the social benefits of shrimp culture to a wider community through the development of such initiatives as public or joint venture operations, value-added processing, and infrastructural development.

Objective 11: Conduct shrimp farm operations to minimize impacts on surrounding resource users

Operating principles at the sector (off-farm) level

• Governments should ensure that zoning and access to resources is transparent and that all interested parties are consulted in the process.
• Governments should ensure that resource use and rights are clearly defined and compatible for all resource users in the coastal zone.
• Governments should identify suitable zones for shrimp farming. The identification of such zones should take into account:
  • The potential of sites for other activities;
  • The interests of other resource owners/users; and
  • The location of critical ecosystems for human use

Objective 12: Ensure the rights and welfare of staff in farm operations

Operating principles at the sector (off-farm) level

• Government in consultation with the private sector to develop and enforce standards compatible with international standards in relation to health and safety specifically relating to aquaculture.
• Government and farmer associations to raise awareness of standards and promote compliance.

Performance criteria

• List of farm staff.
• Farm staff health - frequency of farm related accidents.

References

Although only some are referred to in the text, all of the following documents have served as basic resource material in the preparation of this discussion paper.

Anon. 2000. Shrimp Culture Renovation in Rushan, Shandong Province, China -- a case study report. of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Consortium Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment

Anon. Thematic Review on Management Strategies for Major Diseases in Shrimp Aquaculture. A Component of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Consortium Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment. Report of the Workshop held in Cebu, Philippines from 28-30 November 1999

Anon. 2000. Working paper for discussions on a code of practice for Malaysian Shrimp farmers. Prepared for National Workshop, 9-11 June 1998, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia organized by the Department of Fisheries of Malaysia supported by FAO - TCP/MAL/6611 Legislative Assistance in the Preparation of Regulations of Aquaculture Practices”

Anon. Organic Certification in Aquaculture

Anon. 1996. The Choluteca Declaration. A statement by Non-Governmental Organizations from Latin America, Europe, and Asia at a Forum on “Aquaculture and its Impacts”, in Choluteca, Honduras 16 October 1996Anon. Economic guidelines for NACA case studies. Component of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment

Anon. Thematic Review on Coastal Wetland Habitats and Shrimp Aquaculture. Component of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment. Draft Concept Paper

Boyd, Claude E. and John A. Hargreaves. 2000. Codes of Practice for Marine Shrimp Farming. Component of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment

Boyd, Claude E. and Jason Clay. 2000. Evaluation of Belize Aquaculture, Ltd. a super-intensive Shrimp Aquaculture System in Belize. Component of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment

Boyd, Claude E. and Bartholomew W. Green. Coastal Water Quality Monitoring in Shrimp Farming Areas with an Example from Honduras. Component of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment

British Columbia Salmon Farmers’ Association Code of Practice

Dewalt, Billie R., Lorena Noriega, Jaime Renán Ramírez Zavala Rosa Esthela González. Shrimp aquaculture, people and the environment in coastal Mexico. Component of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment

FAO, Fisheries Department. Aquaculture development I. Good Aquafeed manufacturing Practice. FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries. No. 5. Suppl. I. Rome, FAO. 2001. 47p.

Marine Shrimp Culture Industry of Thailand Code of Conduct - Policy Statements

Marine Stewardship Council. Principles and Criteria for Sustainable Fishing. Airlie House Draft

Pednekar, Sunil S., Nguyen Huu Thien, Pham Le Thong, Truong Hoang Dan. Mixed Shrimp Farming-Mangrove Models in the Mekong Delta: A Socio-economic Study. Component of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment

Schwab, Barbara; Michael Weber; Bernard Lehmann. Key Management Challenges for the Development and Growth of a Shrimp Farm in Northeast Brazil: A Case Study of “Camanor Produtos Marinhos Ltda.”. Component of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment

Siriwardena P.P.G.S.N. 2000. Draft report on the code of best practices for shrimp aquaculture in Sri Lanka. Component of the WB/NACA/WWF/FAO Programme on Shrimp Farming and the Environment. National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency

Tobey, J., J. Clay, and P. Vergne (1998), “A Difficult Balance: The Economic, Environmental, and Social Impacts of Shrimp Farming in Latin America,” Coastal Management Report #2002, The Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett

Tookwinas Siri, Randy Show, Waraporn Prompoj, Surasak Dirakkiat Wichai Lapjatupon. The Marine Shrimp Culture Industry of Thailand Code of Conduct

Tookwinas Siri, Surasak Dirakkait, Waraporn Prompoj, Claude E. Boyd Marine Shrimp Culture Industry of Thailand; Operating Guidelines for Shrimp Farms

Tookwinas Siri, Mali Boonyaratpalin, Chamaiporn Choongam and Jamaree Poongern. On-Farm Quality Assurance for Shrimp Production in Thailand.