WORKING GROUP REPORTS

GROUP 1 - WATER AND ENVIRONMENT

The aim of this working group was to discuss water resource issues relating to the intensification of food production through aquaculture and culture-based fisheries.

Background

South Asia has extensive freshwater resources in the form of large and small water bodies, man- made reservoirs and irrigation tanks. There are also ground-water resources exploited through tube-wells, rivers and streams. South Asia also has extensive irrigation systems. High population densities in some of the south Asian countries mean that there is competition for these water resources for agricultural irrigation, drinking water supply, sanitary use, livestock watering, hydroelectric power generation and fisheries. The multi-use of water from such bodies requires that development of fisheries and aquaculture that utilizes these resources must be integrated into existing usage.

Within fisheries and aquaculture there are occasional conflicts between those who fish water bodies and those who would stock. Frequently a group that will undertake aquaculture in a water body is a sub-group of the larger community that utilizes the water resource. This raises the question - who benefits from the intensification/development of aquaculture and culture-based fisheries?

Several communities or groups often utilize large water bodies. Such large areas make usage difficult to enforce and regulate and there are a range of problems associated with the manner in which the fisheries are stocked and exploited. There are many small water bodies in the sub-region, many of which are used for water storage and are connected to irrigation systems. The patterns of ownership, utilization and management are diverse, but these bodies may be characterized as having a more limited number of resource users who may belong to the same geographic community.

There are quite few extensive irrigation systems in the region and one challenge is to add value per cubic meter of water used. Aquaculture in such extensive irrigation systems has potential both in integration of fish culture into irrigated agricultural land and also in the development of fishing in water storage structures. Irrigation systems are comprised of a number of water user groups, which may cover more than one community. This raises many issues on how intensification can be promoted in an equitable way, to cover both fisheries and aquaculture.

The use of irrigation water for aquaculture may be a significant opportunity alongside other agricultural cash crops. Comparisons of value of crop per unit water used may favour aquaculture in some cases, although this comparison is rarely done. Such aquaculture production might be relatively low, but may represent a significant source of protein or supplementary income to the families involved.

Individually owned aquaculture operations are also numerous in the region and some have potential for intensification. Increased investment or more efficient recycling of on-farm resources must meet increasing input requirements for these ponds. In some areas tube-wells are increasingly used to access ground-water for agriculture and aquaculture. This may lead to excessive extraction and depletion of the resource. This is particularly apparent for crops that have high water demand and in such cases, aquaculture may have the potential to use less water. Diversion of stream or river water for aquaculture may impact downstream users both in terms of flow and quality. However, aquaculture has significant potential in mountainous and hilly areas, particularly when integrated with water storage.

The working group discussions were based around a series of issues and were taken in the context of several categories of water bodies - large reservoirs, medium communal water bodies, irrigation systems and individually owned ponds. The issues that were covered for these resources were: ownership, communities and the resource, management of the resource, weaknesses, government strategies and legislation and opportunities for intensification. The findings and discussions for each issue are enumerated below.

Ownership

Reservoirs and Large Water Bodies

· Large scale hydro-power, irrigation and drinking water reservoirs are state owned.

· Water discharge is managed by the requirements for drinking water, irrigation and electricity generation.

· Fisheries departments do not have authority for making water management and use decisions.

Community Water Bodies/Tanks

· Community tanks may be owned by community or government department, often the irrigation department.

· The water bodies can be operated by the community or leased to individuals/groups.

· Although the government department or community owns tanks, exploitation for fisheries is discouraged if close to a temple.

Irrigation Reservoirs and Systems

· Irrigation reservoirs and distribution systems are often owned by the irrigation department.

· Operation and maintenance is slowly being decentralized in selected systems (in some cases in response to donor initiatives).

Individually Owned Ponds

· Tube-wells and ground-water are individually owned and controlled.

· Ground-water may be owned by the state.

· Policies vary on utilization.

· This might be extracted for irrigation and for aquaculture.

· Excessive abstraction may cause problems with salination of aquifers, reduction of flow, lowered water tables and other issues.

Communities and the Resource

Reservoirs and Large Water Bodies

· There are access issues; multi-user fisheries predominate and responsibility/ownership may involve several authorities.

· Access for fishing may be controlled, but extremely difficult to control.

· Reservoirs located in wildlife areas require several permits for access.

· Where there is a strong good community, there are greater opportunities for aquaculture and culture-based fisheries.

Community Water Bodies/Tanks

· Increasing use of tube-wells (due to favourable loans plus subsidized electricity for tube- wells for small farmers) in irrigation command areas reduces demand for irrigation tank water. This reduces the conflict between agriculture and aquaculture. The income generated from the tank fishery can be used to maintain the tank.

· The standing water in the tank is necessary for recharging the tube-wells through percolation. Systems such as this should be prioritized for aquaculture/fisheries development.

· Occasional conflicts occur between social groups using the reservoir (farmers and fishers) relating to water quality.

· Temple tanks and holy tanks (bathing, lotus production, etc.) cannot be used for other purposes.

Individually Owned Ponds

· Social issues relating to desire to culture fish in a pond vs. pond owner’s not accepting lower caste groups’ involvement.

Management

Reservoirs and Large Water Bodies

· Cost of stocking is handled by the state.

· Little correlation exists between stocking and recapture (except where large fingerlings are used).

· Communities stock their reservoirs and collect annual inland fisheries license. A proportion of the value of the catch is paid to the community fund (e.g. practice in Sri Lanka).

· Fees are collected from fishermen’s cooperative.

· Common landing site for control of landings and ability to exact community/government fee. Fishers do not sell on this market, prices outside are better and illegal fishers will also not land.

Community Water Bodies/Tanks

· Traditionally controlled and serviced by a small group. The integration into a greater common area has led to a breakdown in the community structure and productivity of the systems.

Irrigation Reservoirs and Systems

· Decentralized management should be emphasized (i.e. transfer of responsibility to water user groups as has occurred in Punjab and Andhra Pradesh in India).

Individually Owned Ponds

· Household ponds used for irrigated gardens and fish may be stocked.

· Annual harvest and wild recruitment is typical in the traditional system.

· Stocked with hatchery fingerlings and intensified management is possible if aquaculture does not conflict with other uses of the water.

Weaknesses

Reservoirs and Large Water Bodies

· Large deep reservoirs can have inundated forest, which may cause problems with fisheries using large gears, and therefore fishing is limited.

· Oxygen may be an issue due to stratification.

· Poaching by non-licensed fishers poses a problem.

· Low productivity in such water bodies.

· There is limited access near hydro-power structures.

· Excessive fishing pressure or illegal fishing over-exploits fish populations causing fishery decline.

Community Water Bodies/Tanks

· Culture may be perennial or seasonal.

· Affected by enrichment and eutrophication, uncontrolled use of pesticides and chemicals (sewage disposal, agricultural run-off), macrophyte infestations and silt loads.

· Lack of drainage in low lying areas.

· Poaching in community ponds.

· Widely dispersed and poorly protected by locally responsible authorities and community.

· Deteriorating physical infrastructure due to lack of maintenance and due to emphasis on major and medium irrigation systems - this requires capital reinvestment for rehabilitation.

Irrigation Reservoirs and Systems

· Dominant use of water resource by agriculture.

· Water systems are mainly geared for paddy production, so water supply for fisheries and aquaculture is never guaranteed.

· During paddy drying season, there may be insufficient water for fish culture.

· Drying down of small reservoirs for sand removal impacts fisheries.

· Water user groups are unable to effectively police water management in the system to adequately guarantee water.

· Lack of coordination between irrigation and fisheries authorities.

· Surplus water only discharged for use in aquaculture.

· Uncertainty of supply for aquaculture.

· Water logging and salinization.

· Water distribution is unequal due to infrastructure, dereliction or management.

· Irrigation water may even not be used for aquaculture as legislated in some countries.

Individually Owned Ponds

· Short culture season as some ponds are not perennial.

· Silting up and shallow of ponds common, and thus, require frequent excavation.

· Water supply may not be available, thus, limiting level of intensification.

· Effluents may impact local water resources (uncommon).

· Pollution related impacts likely to occur through agricultural run-off impacts water quality and fish health.

· Water usage for bathing and drinking purposes limits aquaculture potential.

Government Strategies and Legislation

Reservoirs and Large Water Bodies

· Promotion of community-based fish culture.

· Government will not stock large reservoirs since they consider fish as self recruiting.

Community Water Bodies/Tanks

· Promotion of community based fish culture.

· Income generating shrimp culture requires tax breaks, import tax breaks, credit support.

· Free seeds are initially given to fish farmer development agencies.

· It may not be possible to lease a water body or part of it for aquaculture purposes. In some cases this may be legally allowed but practically impossible due to multiple authorities.

Irrigation Reservoirs and Systems

· There is a general lack of policy for utilization of irrigation reservoirs and command systems for fisheries and aquaculture.

· Ponds are individually owned.

· Free seeds are initially given to fish farmer development agencies.

· Loans may be available for aquaculture but poor uptake.

· NGOs promote small-scale fish culture in rural areas, but fingerlings are not free.

· Agriculture is less attractive for income generation with respect to fish culture.

Opportunities for Intensification

Reservoirs and Large Water Bodies

· Some under-utilized water bodies offer potential for enhanced fisheries.

· Improved management of natural fish stocks as well as monitoring and regulation of artificial stocking for further development of culture-based fisheries will enhance reservoir fish production.

· Stocking using larger fingerlings will enhance production.

· Government stocking programmes (i.e. input side of enhancement) desirable, however, harvest side may not be adequately addressed and sustainability will require cost recovery systems.

· Fishers may be individuals or cooperatives, frequently relatively new (10 years) and thus, lack cohesion, experience and technical knowledge. Strengthening these groups could enhance management and sustainability of the enhanced fishery.

· Use of cage culture for seed production (for stocking larger reservoirs) and for grow-out (floating and stake) desirable.

· Commercial species are most likely to be viable and this may limit entry to the activity due to high start up and operational costs.

· Use of pen culture (major carps) recommended.

· Green-water culture in cages (and some pens) is not possible and will require more complete feeding.

· Water quality impacts likely to occur in shallow waters; eutrophication, static water and thermocline effects may increase temperature and limit oxygen.

· Poor citing (due to requirement for guarding, access to market, landing, etc.) often leads to excessive cage density resulting to rapid disease transmission and localized water quality impacts.

· Although high production density is achieved in the cage, it is small when taken on the overall area of the water body.

Community Water Bodies/Tanks

· Small size and community owned, therefore community culture is possible, especially where the grouping is strong.

· In other cases, the community will lease out to an individual or group to manage.

· Not a technology transfer issue but more of a community or group strengthening requirement.

· Improvement of the fishery directly impacts the resource users (~80 percent which are mostly small to medium farmers).

· Seasonal bodies are easier to manage due to ability to harvest everything.

· Stocking is undertaken by community groups, government or private groups.

· A wide variety of cost recovery mechanisms (e.g. country-specific or may even be particular to a water body or community) exist and there is considerable potential for transfer of these to those who lack experience.

· Cost recovery by government is not always effective due to factors such as poor control, poaching and illegal landing.

· Wealthy farmers prefer individual operation, thus communal operation may be less popular.

· De-silting and management of the tank are needed for rehabilitation and may be offset through fisheries development. There are compensatory gains as the excavated silt (mostly sand) could be used for substituting the river sand whose utilization for construction purposes is now restricted.

· Opportunities and demand exists for mini-power generation units at minor dams/waterfalls.

Irrigation Reservoirs and Systems

· Where there is a continuous discharge, aquaculture is possible.

· Irrigation canals are not used for aquaculture but only for short-term crops (e.g. tilapia, nursery operation).

· Appropriate for air breathing species.

· Salination and water logging reduces agricultural value in irrigation systems, thus, making aquaculture a good opportunity in this environment.

· Integration of aquaculture and crops possible.

· There is pressure for resource generation and financial sustainability of irrigation tanks and systems (i.e. inability of state to maintain operation).

· Fisheries development offers opportunity for irrigation department to collect additional revenue for maintenance of infrastructure.

Individually Owned Ponds

· Fluctuation and uncertainty of income from agriculture lead to increased financial risks, thus, alternative sources of income generation such as aquaculture becomes attractive.

· Additional income and employment generation for fishermen/fish farmers generate increasing interest in alternative species, i.e. diversification for improved income generation.

· Individual ownership in most cases facilitates management, therefore, increased productivity is merely a case of technology transfer.

· Stocking increases production.

· Diversification towards carnivorous species desired, but lack of feeds is a limiting factor.

· Lack of pellet/formulated feeds limits production opportunity.

· Use of wastes such as offals are under-utilized, although there may be social issues related to the acceptability of this practice.

· Stocking of the freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) in small reservoirs, rivers and ponds desirable as well as introduction of freshwater pearl culture.

· Potentials for integration of aquaculture into water treatment and wastewater treatment exist, where such integration might include the use of aquatic macrophytes.

Conclusions and Recommendations

· Considerable potential exists for the intensification of the multifarious water bodies and resources of south Asia. However, there are also considerable constraints to the development of these resources, many of which are not well understood or are not immediately apparent.

· Aquaculture requires ownership and a degree of control of the ‘property’. Culture-based fisheries require systems for management of fishing efforts and re-investment or recovery of stocking costs. Since intensification requires various inputs, investment of resources is unlikely if a direct benefit is not perceived. Large water bodies have multiple-users and stocking efforts often fail due to unsustainable stocking and cost recuperation coupled by the lack of management of fishing activity. Smaller aquaculture systems suffer from theft (in rice fish ponds away from home, cages in reservoirs) and may need security, thus affecting site-selection for aquaculture operations and may limit individual’s ability to adopt the activity.

· Any effort to intensify aquaculture must take into consideration the wider issues of how aquaculture will affect others and there will be situations where intensification is not suitable. Appropriate aquaculture initiatives can alleviate poverty through enhancing fisheries yields, increased efficiency of resource use and opportunities for diversification and income generation. However, it also has the potential to increase poverty through equity issues such as loss of access to fishing areas, exclusion of the poorest from community fish ponds, loss of drinking sources, water quality and conflicts over water supply.

· The issues which mainly relate to intensification of water bodies and to a lesser extent to household ponds, are primarily socio-economic in nature. All relate to the ways in which aquaculture is integrated into the wider community and environment and these are frequently overlooked due to the sectoral nature of the institutions that deal with water and fisheries.

Information Issues Relating to Management of Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture

· There is a serious lack of information on carrying capacities of reservoirs. Characterization of water bodies suitable for aquaculture and fisheries development to allow prioritization of aquaculture and fisheries development is required. Synthesis of available information is necessary.

· There is a need for separation of wild fish production from that of stocked fisheries in collecting statistics of production.

· Riverine areas not brought under the survey/management of the fisheries departments.

· Collection of data on rivers flowing through the district and the irrigation canals from the dams to the field, for diversifying aquaculture and other uses are necessary.

· Improved collection of statistics on culture-based fisheries production and yields (fish catch) from all water bodies are necessary in order to have more accurate production estimates.

· There is a need for updated inventory/details on water resources with respect to suitability and allowed areas for fish culture. The following are important considerations:

- Policy may restrict use of water resources for fisheries and aquaculture.

- Proper allocation of water use for different sectors is necessary.

- Information on sector-wise utilization of quantities and economics of water used from the available sources is inadequate.

- Evaluation of the available statistics of water utilization and related costs for drinking, home use and irrigation (agriculture) necessary.

- Need for collecting information on the quantities of water used by the other sectors and also respective opportunity costs involved on an annual basis.

- Adequate monitoring system, both communal and individual, for water usage is required.

Institutional Issues

· Clear policies for aquaculture or fisheries development in water bodies are currently inadequate or in some cases, do not exist, thus, immediately constraining any initiative. Reservoir and irrigation system policies and operations need to be more adaptive to the requirements of fisheries and aquaculture. Awareness building in the other sectors (e.g. planners, forestry, irrigation, power generation) at all the relevant levels, on the potentials of stocking is necessary.

· Different sectoral policy use/authority involving usage of such water resources is a serious limitation to effective aquaculture and fisheries intensification. There is a potential for cross-sectoral body to discuss the issues of management for multi-purpose water bodies (large and small). Such bodies could be formal or informal and operate from national to local level.

· Inter-departmental competition/inter-sectoral rivalry in water use and management of reservoirs is an important issue (e.g. a single dam with 5 stakeholder authorities (e.g. Irrigation/Agriculture Departments, Fisheries and Forestry (wildlife) Departments, Water Authority (drinking water supply), Electricity Board (power supply/generation) and the Tourism Development Corporation).

· Clear ownership or rights to access limits the ability of individuals or groups to invest their resources is lacking. Therefore, establishing ownership and right (priority) for use of water bodies like dams, irrigation tanks, etc. are necessary. The current trend to decentralize management to water user groups requires a strengthening of their ability to interact with each other and with other relevant government institutions.

· The key to management of a water body lies in understanding the variety of other social issues, which frequently impact fisheries and fish culture production, and the development of mechanisms for their resolution.

· Provide incentive, as a direct benefit to user groups to improve their resources, through re-investment of revenues generated from tank operations back to the tank system instead of being taken by state governments.

· Assessment of the applicability, transferability and potential for sustainable resource utilization of existing management initiatives/mechanisms developed by users of water resources should be undertaken.

· Motivating agencies at local level need to be established/developed.

· Fish losses occur in reservoirs and stocked water bodies as a result of:

- violation or disregard of dead storage level/mandatory minimum level as fish refuge during low water period;

- evacuation of the Walayar reservoir in India in 1999, under the pretext of irrigation but apparently for the clandestine removal of sand, resulted to the complete loss of both stocked and natural fish stock; and

- illegal/unauthorized fish capture, fish landing, and poaching.

· The lack of basic support facilities to start-up culture-based fisheries and aquaculture is a special problem for individual farmers who have limited credit access for basic inputs such as nets, pumps, and seed for stocking, etc.

· Opportunities exist for the integration of aquaculture and agriculture, to diversify the species produced and to increase profitability, through the development of fish culture within existing agriculture systems, particularly those that have existing water resources.

· While technologies for culture of commercial species (e.g. freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii), snakehead (Channa spp.), catfish (Clarias spp.)) exist, entry costs to these activities are high and this opportunity may not be available for many farmers.

Principles for Water Use and Aquaculture

Some principles for responsible water use for aquaculture that integrate the requirements of different stakeholders are listed below:

· add value to water;

· use water efficiently to maximize its potential;

· aquaculture should respect other users as water is a common resource;

· water quality should be maintained to the highest quality for common use of all;

· aquaculture should endeavour to improve water quality;

· equitable access to water & fisheries should be ensured;

· inter-sectoral coordination should be promoted, particularly at the local level (i.e. district and community levels).

Case Studies Based on Background Material and Working Group Discussions

India

Favourable loan conditions coupled with subsidized electricity for water abstraction, have promoted tube-well construction and reduced the conflict between water requirements for agriculture and aquaculture. Income can be generated through the development of the fishery in the tanks supplying the command area, and such income from the tank fishery can be used to maintain the tank. Two important features of this system are: (a) water levels are maintained in the tank to support the fishery; and (b) water demand is lowered through the use of tube-wells. The standing water in the tank is necessary for the recharging of groundwater that supplies the tube-wells through percolation. Proper identification of locations for such systems and subsequent prioritization of those sites are needed for aquaculture/culture-based fisheries development.

Kerala, India

A large area (e.g. 124 000 ha) is not currently used for fish culture because of high yielding varieties of rice production and the associated use of chemicals and pesticides. Rice cultivation in such areas is not particularly profitable. One crop of fish as practiced in Kuttanad in South Kerala is a good alternative. Rice-fish culture could also be practiced, particularly since paddy farmers are using organic manure, other bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides resulting from increased awareness on the harmful effects of chemicals and pesticides (e.g. Endosulphan organochlorine pesticide, currently causes considerable destruction of the plantation crop ecosystem in North Kerala). In Chittoor, farmers have abandoned sugarcane cultivation. Aquaculture integration, thus, offers potential solutions to these environmentally-unfriendly and unprofitable agricultural production systems.

Punjab, Pakistan

Although rapidly expanding activity in many regions with low rainfall, fish farming is relatively new. This is particularly true in situations where large-scale management of flowing water resources for irrigation tended to reduce the productivity of existing fisheries. In arid, semi-arid and sub-humid regions, water loss to the atmosphere consumes much of the water allocated to fish ponds. Reducing crest width and pond shape may substantially reduce this loss and the quantity of water required for pond fish culture. Depending on pond size and location, savings of up to 37 percent of total water requirements may be achieved by adopting a square design and minimising crest width. Analysis of the relative water requirements for different types of agriculture and aquaculture could lead to more diversity in crop production, greater availability of animal protein and more efficient multiple water-use options.

Orissa, India

In Orissa, the state government drafted a policy to transfer authority for reservoirs of more than 24 ha water area from the Water Resources Department to the Fishery Department in order to better exploit freshwater fisheries potential of reservoirs. Fishing rights in 80 of 129 of the state’s reservoirs will be initially transferred followed by a complete transfer of the remainder of the reservoirs, if the scheme proves successful. Fishing rights to the reservoirs would not be auctioned to individuals or private commercial interests but will be made available to people living near the reservoir, irrespective of whether they are traditional fishermen or not. Management will be conducted through fishing cooperatives.

The Fishery Department will be empowered to register the cooperatives. Fishing cooperatives will be required to deposit Rs. 100 per hectare in order to fish the reservoir. Twenty percent of this amount goes to the Water Resources Department for maintenance of the reservoir; 80 percent goes to the Fish Farmers Development Agency (FFDA). The FFDA will utilize the funds to supply fish fry for stocking and for use by fish farmers. With regards to the threat of theft, fisheries extension officers will have the power to initiate appropriate action whenever theft cases are reported to them.

GROUP 2 - NUTRITION AND FEEDING

The aim of this working group was to discuss issues related to nutrition and feeding, including feed manufacturing, feeding practices, and other related issues to be considered during the intensification process to improve production, reduce environmental impacts, and make the intensification process sustainable.

Species

In South Asia, there is scope and good potential for culturing species other than carps. These are seen to provide food and increase farmers’ incomes. These include seabass and reef fishes such as grouper, milkfish, catfishes (Pangasiids and Clariids), trout, masher, murrels, featherbacks, perch, hilsa, silver barbs, giant freshwater prawn, and others. Further research and development on the breeding technology, feed and nutritional requirements for most of these species are necessary before widespread culture. As most of the breeding technologies are available elsewhere, research and technology adaptation from other countries will fill the technological gaps for these species.

Species selection criteria and users

Suitability of aquaculture practices in relation to feeding habit

An important consideration is to intensify the production of the traditional food fish species such as carps in South Asia.

The yield gap for carps in India is wide: (a) experimental farm level - 15 MT/ha l; (b) pilot farm -10 tonnes/ha; (c) well managed farm - 6 tonnes/ha; and (d) national average - 2 tonnes/ha. Improved nutrition, mainly through provision of supplementary formulated feed, can bridge a big part of this gap. A related issue would be standard nutrient composition for each growth stage of the fish for cost-effective use of feeds.

Feed (for carps and other food fish species)

An important research issue concerns supplementary and formulated (complete) feed compositions to support various levels of intensification and various species being farmed or promoted for aquaculture.

Extension issues to be considered are:

· transfer of feed formulation to the local feed industry (private, farmer cooperatives;

· quality assurance;

· reliability of feed supply for intensive systems of species that depend mostly on artificial feed; and

· transfer of techniques to farmers.

Market and Distribution

For India, in particular, an important policy issue is finding suitable nation-wide arrangement in the establishment of feed production units to supply feed to the farmers. An assumption is that a good and sustained demand for commercially formulated feed would encourage commercial feed enterprises to set up business. However, there should also be a vigorous effort from the government to develop and promote farm-made feeds, and to assist farmer cooperatives/associations in establishing feed plants to serve their needs. Another important role for the government is the development of an efficient marketing system for feed to make them readily available to farmers at an affordable price.

There is also need to rationalize the levels of feed manufacturing to cater to various aquaculture systems through:

· formulated feed manufacturing, to be located centrally, for intensive systems that rely solely or heavily on formulated feed;

· community feed mill for semi-intensive systems that depend significantly on artificial feed; and

· farm-level aquafeed production for semi-intensive production systems.

Economics of Current Production Systems

The traditional composite carp system requires low operating cost, it is often done in undrainable lands, therefore, the land rent is low. While carp prices remain low, and margins are narrow, the demand is seen to be sustained. Such traditional system will enable the farmers to continue to make money, although profitability is low, from carp farming. If carp production is intensified, this would require supplementary (even complete formulated) feed where the cost of feed will be 50-60 percent of the total input cost. If this pathway to intensification is followed, a critical need will be to improve efficiency of feed utilization, and finding and making widely available alternative local ingredients.

Another pathway is developing and promoting integrated systems. Carp aquaculture could remain as the main farm enterprise and integrated with the production of cash crops, food crops, chicken, livestock (e.g. Bengal goat), and agro-forestry). A third pathway is promotion of polyculture systems of carps (as the main species) and other higher value species (e.g. freshwater prawn).

It is also important to develop multi-purpose uses for water. In India, a follow-through system (6l/sec) has been developed for carps (initial trial used rohu) that produced 1.5-2.0 kg/m² of water over a 3-month period. Water is supplied by gravity and re-used for agriculture. In this trial system, water was used to irrigate paddy but it could very well be used for other purposes. Formulated pellet was used that yielded a Food Conversion Ratio (FCR) of around 2. It was formulated at the CIFA laboratory using standard ingredients available in local markets. This could be applicable to hilly areas (e.g. trout farms in Nepal which discharges used water into a field of crops and orchard) and diverted streams.

Likely Impacts of Intensification

The following are important considerations with respect to likely impacts of intensification.

Environmental

· Pollution of water can occur in confined environment if stocking density is increased and this could be mitigated with better nutrition, less wastage and efficient use of feed through:

· proper feeding regime (better dispensing system);

· improved feed quality (lower FCR);

· optimized feed utilization;

· stock manipulation (appropriate biomass control);

· recycling of farm resources (including feed resources) to improve farm sustainability; and

· use of biofilters (plant and animal) to improve water quality as well as add to farm production.

Economic

· Adoption of integrated systems for more cost-effective utilization of water and land, on-farm resources (manure, farm by-products), as well as farm labour (family and hired) is essential.

Technical

· Provision of credit for initial investment to farmers who would like to adopt integrated farming systems is important.

· Development and transfer of management skills to operate integrated farming systems;

· adoption of better management skills in feeding intensive monoculture of high value species (i.e. Macrobrachium, Clarias, etc), or polyculture with other high-value species such as Macrobrachium are necessary.

· Development of appropriate feeds for the concerned culture systems is required.

Strategies to Enable Intensification of Feed Industry

· A good market for formulated feeds and incentives from the government would encourage expansion of the aqua-feed industry. This, however, depends on a sustained demand from aquaculture, which is in turn reliant on the profitability of using formulated feed.

· Standardization of manufacturing processes is essential.

· Quality assurance is necessary.

Competition with Other Animal Feeds and Human Food

Important issues include:

· efficiency in feed conversion;

· substitution of feed ingredient;

· use of non-traditional feed ingredients; and

· recycling of by-products as well as waste materials.

Opportunities for Non-Conventional Feeds

· Large number of feed ingredients has been identified and their nutrient compositions have been assessed. However, there is need to further study the effects of using them in terms of their attributes such as anti-nutritional factors, digestibility and nutrient bio-availability.

Feed Additives

· Non-hormonal growth enhancers are encouraged.

· Antibiotics should not be used.

· Better understanding of attractants, binders and probiotics is necessary.

· Better understanding of vitamin and mineral additives is essential.

Aqua-Feed Manufacturing Practices

There are standards set by the Bureau of Indian Standards. It is necessary to ensure that good practices are promoted and the standards are followed, in consideration of the following:

· quality control of ingredients and finished product;

· appropriate labelling with respect of nutrient composition, shelf-life, and optimal water stability; and

· proper advice on use of feed.

Dietary Nutrient Requirements of Cultured Species

· A good understanding of micronutrients, vitamins and minerals for cost-effective dietary formulation is essential.

Larval and Post-Larval Nutritional Requirements

Better understanding of the following aspects of larval and post-larval nutritional requirements is necessary:

· technology for larval feed production (e.g. micro-encapsulation);

· physiology of digestion and feeding behaviour of prawn, catfish and grouper; and

· nutrient requirements of recruit species.

Nutrient Loads and Losses to the Environment

The following are important considerations with respect to maximizing nutrient retention efficiency:

· increasing stability; and

· increasing bio-availability of nutrients.

Nutritional Requirements of Broodstock and Stocking Material

It is necessary to have a good understanding of the following:

· increase fecundity;

· multiple breeding (performance of broodfish during spawning and post-spawning phases);

· seed quality from multiple breeding; and

· requirements of carp fingerlings during stunting and stocking.

Major Issues

· Aquaculture is dependent on agricultural and fishery resources for fertilizers and feed inputs.

· There is increased competition between users of the limited agricultural and fishery resources.

· The costs of feed ingredients and farm inputs are increasing.

· Decreasing or static market costs for the major cultivated finfish and crustacean species are important factors.

· Impacts of intensification of aquaculture production on the aquatic environment are a major risk.

· Choice of farming system affects sustainable and fish production.

· Availability and utilization of quality feed ingredients are essential requirements.

Strategies and Recommendations

· Aquaculture production can be increased by maximizing the role of natural food organisms through the use of improved pond management (i.e. fertilization, substrate enhancement, and water management techniques).

· Aquaculture of filter feeding/herbivorous and omnivorous fish should be promoted to make the efficient use of natural pond food organisms and use of locally available agricultural and animal by-products and wastes.

· Aquaculture production can be enhanced by adopting location-specific polyculture technology in semi-intensive farming systems.

· Identification of conventional and non-conventional feed ingredients/alternative protein sources for aqua-feed production should be encouraged.

· Research to verify the existing information-base supporting the commercial production of aqua-feed for finfish and crustaceans should be undertaken.

· Research on the role of natural food organisms in semi-intensive farming systems should be promoted.

· Development of improved feed management strategy in semi-intensive and intensive farming systems should be undertaken.

· Integration of aquaculture with agricultural production systems should be promoted.

· Development of improved on-farm feed formulation and feed manufacturing techniques for the production and use of farm-made aqua-feeds by small-scale farmers should be promoted.

· Evaluation of on-farm fertilizer and feeding regimes and strategies employed by farmers for the major cultivated finfish and crustacean species should be undertaken in order to identify gaps in knowledge as well as constraints.

· Development of regional information centres and networks on aquaculture nutrition and feeding should be encouraged.

GROUP 3 - DISEASE CONTROL AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT

The aim of this working group was to discuss issues related to undertaking appropriate health management measures during the intensification process to reduce the risks of diseases and disease outbreaks in aquatic production systems for better productivity.

Background

The working group examined the relevant information provided by the seven countries in the country status reports. The working group was of the opinion that all aquaculture systems are prone to diseases and health problems. The traditional extensive systems are less prone to diseases but, semi-intensive or intensive systems, particularly ill-managed systems, have the highest risk of disease incursions. Thus, health management should not be addressed on the basis of systems.

Disease outbreaks generally occur through environmental changes/degradation, poor nutrition, proliferation of resident pathogens, and through the introduced pathogens resulting from movement (introductions/transfers) of animals (seed/broodstock).

There are many pathogens of concern in the sub-regional countries, but it is important to categorize and prioritize “important pathogens” to be considered for prevention and control. Unknown aetiology, rapidity of spread, economic loss and severity are considered criteria for categorizing diseases.

The approach for reducing the risk of disease outbreaks should be to avoid pathogens, improve management through better management practices, control of resident pathogens, prophylaxis, and overall prevention. Subasinghe et al. (2000)^[2] identified the requirements for an effective health management programme which covers all levels of aquaculture activity (i.e. production, farm, district, provincial level, national and regional/international levels). The success of such a broad-ranging programme relies on a continuum of open communication and information exchange flowing in all directions. The requirements are:

· strong, healthy juvenile/seed, proper nutrition, appropriate waste management, optimum water quality, and regular monitoring at the production level;

· good record keeping to include all aspects of farm operations is essential at the farm-site level; and

· good planning and siting of aquaculture farms, efficient extension services, farmer cooperatives, health management training for local fisheries officers are essential at the district/divisional/provincial levels.

At the national level the requirements are:

· resources to support one or more team(s) of health professionals and specialists with a solid communication infrastructure linking national and farm level expertise, and with access to information exchange and technology;

· national policy directives/regulations and legislation covering: (a) diagnostic services, (b) disease management and control plans (including contingency plans for emergency disease outbreaks), (c) surveillance and reporting systems, (d) health management and extension services training and education, and (e) public awareness programmes for policy makers, farmers, national and field officers, and market consumers;

· a system to establish good communication links in order to provide appropriate consultation with stakeholders (e.g. farmers, industry, academe, research institutes, other interested groups); and

· enhanced awareness, participation and cooperation in regional/international programmes and political commitment to implement aquatic animal health agreements and respond to changes at regional/international levels.

At the regional/international levels, a regional mechanism should be cooperatively established for building joint strategies and approaches on:

· standardized techniques for disease diagnosis and screening for specific pathogens;

· codes of practice for reducing aquatic animal health risks;

· responsible and transparent reporting systems;

· accreditation of regional aquatic animal health reference laboratories; and

· mechanisms for regular monitoring and evaluation of regional/international agreements.

The group recognized the efforts of FAO and NACA and the progress made during past few years in developing and building consensus on the Asia Regional Technical Guidelines on Health Management for Responsible Movement of Live Aquatic Animals (FAO/NACA, 2000). The group strongly recommended that the relevant provisions should be implemented as early as possible to assist the responsible intensification process.

A recommended approach to address the above needs is the development of National Strategy on Aquatic Animal Health Management. In developing and implementing the National Strategy, it is recognized that the countries within the sub-region have different levels of expertise, capacities, infrastructure, and socio-economic status. The importance of learning from the lessons learned by countries in the sub-region was also realized. The components of the National Strategy are:

· legislation/regulatory frameworks/conducive policy;

· coordination of activities at local, national and regional levels;

· identification of important pathogens to be dealt with;

· adequate institutional resources;

· good diagnostics;

· disease surveillance and reporting;

· early warning systems and contingency planning;

· human and institutional resources improvement/capacity building; and

· private Sector (all stakeholders) participation in implementation.

Policy and Legislation

Appropriate policies and legislation and effective enforcement are necessary for a successful aquatic animal health management programme. The following are important considerations in order to achieve this:

· integrate aquatic animal health management into national aquaculture development plans and as appropriate, designate responsible authorities and agencies with appropriate mandates, responsibilities and competency to deal with aquatic animal health matters;

· establish National Aquatic Animal Health Committees with clear terms of reference and action plans;

· identify and designate national/local aquatic animal health centres for health support services (e.g. national or state-level referral laboratories for specific diseases, etc.;

· facilitate appropriate legal framework and regulations for health certification, disease reporting, early response (warning) to disease emergencies, disease control programmes, registration of farms and hatcheries, accreditation of hatcheries for live aquatic animal control and health assurance;

· encourage national institutions and other stakeholder dialogues and consultation; and

· develop mechanisms for long-term adoption of policies and regulations and enforcement of legislature.

Quarantine and Health Certification

It is important to ensure that national policies are consistent with international obligations (e.g. trading obligations such as WTO/SPS Agreements) and to improve national status as a responsible partner in international trade. It is also important that national trading and movement of animals are conducted in a responsible manner to reduce the risks of disease incursions. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the following:

· review external requirements and conditions for domestic and international movement of live aquatic animals;

· international and domestic health certification requirements based on risk assessments to reduce risks of spreading diseases to new areas and preparation of supporting technical implementation guidelines;

· upgrade of facilities and appropriate training of staff at national, regional, provincial and local levels;

· enhanced coordination and communication between different state authorities at central to district, provincial and local levels;

· capacity building at the farmer level, and provincial authorities and research institutes;

· awareness-building on concepts of Import Risk Analysis (IRA);

· create an enabling institutional environment to deal with health certification and quarantine;

· establish procedure for registering of health certification authorities and/or persons; and

· establish networking and publication of a directory of competent authorities/persons within the sub-regional countries.

Disease Surveillance, Monitoring, Early Warning and Contingency Planning (Disaster Management System)

It is essential to: (a) establish an effective programme to detect disease outbreaks, as early as possible, (b) monitor existing disease problems, and (c) implement control and/or eradication strategies. These could be achieved through:

· improved participation of subregional countries to the Asia-Pacific Quarterly Aquatic Animal Disease Reporting System being implemented by NACA/FAO and the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) through assistance to capacity building on diagnostics, surveillance, etc.;

· field-level dissemination of Level I diagnostics (FAO/NACA 2000)^[3] and implementing farm level surveillance;

· training on epidemiology, pathology and participatory approaches to disease assessments; and

· establish a national early warning system and contingency plan.

Diagnostics, Therapy and Control

Delivery of an effective aquatic animal health diagnostic and advice services to farmers and improving aquatic animal health certification is essential. The following are important considerations:

· different levels of diagnostics as outlined in the Asia Technical Guidelines on Health Management;

· development of cost effective rapid diagnostic techniques;

· standardization of diagnostic techniques and national level inter-calibration exercises;

· standardization and validation of diagnostic techniques and networking among the sub-regional countries and laboratories;

· enhancement of laboratory facilities and expertise;

· in-house training for field laboratory officers at appropriate research institutions;

· collaboration between terrestrial and aquatic animal health services;

· long-term capacity building and educational programmes;

· regulation of veterinary drug use; and

· development of national veterinary drug licensing, registration and inventory programmes.

Aquatic Animal Health Information Systems

It is necessary to consolidate information on aquatic animal diseases. This could be achieved by:

· development and establishment of an aquatic animal health information system - mechanics, over-all coordination, requirements, linkages;

· integration of such systems into field extension services;

· training on database management, data analysis and computer skills;

· institutional strengthening for handling information and data; and

· participation of sub-regional countries in FAO’s Aquatic Animal Pathogen and Quarantine Information System (AAPQIS).

Awareness, Extension Education and Communication Programmes

Increasing awareness on aquatic animal health issues, and improving linkages and communication between farmers, service providers, provincial officers, extension staff, national and international agencies are essential. These could be achieved through:

· development and provision of educational and training resources to farmers and the general consuming public;

· development of university-level training on aquatic animal health management (i.e. inclusion in fisheries and veterinary medicine curricula);

· on-site demonstration/education/training programmes;

· establishment of effective extension services through delivery of farm-level health management extension materials, and effective problem solving skills;

· promotion and delivery of effective health management practices and harmonized advice through various entry and control points (e.g. fry producers/ suppliers, fry traders, farmer networks, NGOs, extension officers, universities, etc.);

· building strong linkages between farmers, diagnosticians, researchers and policy makers and improving communication at all levels (i.e. national, provincial and district levels);

· encourage, establish, and implement technical cooperation programme among farmers (e.g. self-help programmes); and

· increase awareness on concepts such as import risk analysis, contingency planning and zoning.

Research and Development

The following are important considerations:

· prioritize research areas in aquatic animal health management based on identified needs;

· evaluate the practical application of researches conducted by research institutes, universities;

· undertake more problem-solving research;

· emphasize on traditional disease control methods such as herbal remedies, etc.;

· effective dissemination of research findings;

· conduct on-farm intervention trials with farmers;

· integrate research output and finding mechanisms to use research output as basis for policy decisions on health management;

· basic knowledge on aquaculture and aquatic animal health should be a pre-requisite for engagement in research, extension, and advice on aquatic animal health management;

· improved aquatic animal health facilities of both government and research institutions;

· explore possibilities of industry participation in research where research institutions conduct industry-led, timely, problem solving research with financial and other assistance from the private sector; and

· establish a mechanism for registration and licensing of aquatic animal health professionals.

Resources and Funding

Generation of finances from the government (and other possible external sources) to support the different components of the National Strategy (within the short- and long-term time-frame) and also technical and financial support from regional and international donor agencies is essential. It is important to encourage project proposal development by the national institutions for external funding while influencing increased state commitment. Mechanisms for generating financial support from the private sector should be identified and implemented and important lessons learned should be shared among regional countries.

Regional and International Linkages

In order to enhance national capacities on aquatic animal health management, regional and international linkages should be strengthened through regional activities that will promote:

· regional cooperation and approaches to disease control programmes for shared watersheds;

· sharing of information and experiences;

· standardization of techniques for disease diagnosis, etc.; and

· cooperation in the adoption of regional and international agreements and standards on aquaculture health management.

Major Issues and Recommendations

· Diseases have become a primary constraint to sustainable aquaculture production and product trade and will remain a key issue during the process of intensification.

· Specific examples on the impacts of transboundary aquatic animal diseases on international trade, as well as socio-economic and biodiversity implications are available and these should serve as important guide to regional countries.

· Different measures are needed to deal with diseases of fish and shellfish in terms of international codes, regionally oriented guidelines, national programmes and legislation, technology for diagnostics, therapy and information communication.

· Approaches to aquatic animal health management should cover generic (e.g. good husbandry, prevention and control), systems health management and epidemiological approaches (e.g. disease surveillance and reporting systems).

· Aquatic animal health management programmes carried out in different countries are different in terms of efficacy of disease prophylaxis/control and pathogen detection/disease diagnostics, national legislation, obligations to international agreements and other regional codes, and the effectiveness of programmes on education, training and extension services.

· Health management problems do pose risks to rural small-scale aquaculture, and there is a need for special consideration of this aquaculture sector.

· There is a need for effective communication at all levels of the production system

· Identification of the roles of the private sector (e.g. aquaculturists, industry associations, cooperatives, etc.), professional societies, diagnosticians and researchers, in education, research, training and other related extension services for effective health management are important.

· State sector participation and enhanced contribution and commitment to health management are vital.

· Over the past few years, particularly in Asia, understanding and knowledge on health management of aquatic animals increased through strong awareness building among countries and involved stakeholders and this should be continued

· The implementation of the Asia Regional Technical Guidelines on Health Management for Responsible Movement of Live Aquatic Animals which will positively assist health management process during intensification.

· National Aquatic Animal Health Management Strategies, based on the needs of the country, considering the above issues, should be developed and implemented.

GROUP 4 - SEED RESOURCES

Seed Production

The ready availability of good quality fish seed plays a vital role in sustainable development of aquaculture. In many cases, while potentials for intensification of aquaculture exist, the unreliable or seasonal supply of fingerlings presents a major constraint. Fingerling prices may be high in situations where there is high demand and limited supply. The quality of fingerlings is also typically low in such situations, since farmers will buy and stock any fish that they can obtain.

Choice of species is another limitation to intensification. As farmers seek to diversify out of traditionally cultured species, the fingerlings of more commercial species may not be available locally. In south Asia, the lack of seed is currently limiting the expansion of culture of certain carnivorous species such as Clarias spp. and Channa spp. and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii).

Fairly well-developed technologies for mass production of the Indian and Chinese carps exist in the countries of south Asia. These methods, while robust but not highly efficient, are relatively well adapted to the environmental and economic conditions typically encountered in south Asia.

The working group concluded that ensuring greater availability of high quality fish seed is dependent upon different factors as discussed below.

Local production of fish seed is an important goal. This requires the creation of an enabling environment for private sector hatcheries such as:

· development of markets (establishment of fishing groups for stocking water bodies, extension and technology transfer to pond farmers);

· fingerling trading and transportation;

· good quality broodstock (both genetic and nutritional);

· support to health management;

· access to finance;

· access to technical knowledge; and

· portable or mini-hatcheries for farmer-based seed production.

Hatchery hygiene is typically poor and water supplies in small-scale hatcheries are usually reliant on surface water. Such water has already passed through fishponds prior to use in the hatchery. Poor water quality in the hatchery immediately reduces fertilization and hatching efficiency. The steps required to improve water quality are various and may not be economically viable in many cases. Simple actions include: (a) use of settling ponds or water improvement ponds, (b) water storage in reservoirs that do not have stocked fish, (c) use of fine mesh screens, (d) mechanical filtration, and (e) simple recirculation.

Improvement in nursery management is also necessary. Considerable mortality of seed from hatchlings to fry stage is a common problem encountered and is the result of poor management. Reduction of this mortality can be achieved through sufficient feeding, exclusion of predatory/wild fish, frogs and insects from the nursery pond, and effective fertilization for natural food production.

Intensive stocking of fingerlings in restricted holding conditions leads to stunting problems. There are management issues concerned with cannibalism and this system could be improved further. Extending the period of availability of fish seed could be ensured by prolonging the breeding season. Re-maturation and multiple breeding of broodfish are management related actions, but do relate to available resources (especially feed quality and water area) at the hatchery.

Wild fish are commonly used for improving the genetic quality or rectifying in-breeding. This should not be relied upon for the maintenance of long term genetic quality; the maintenance of aquaculture stocks should be a long-term goal.

Pure line fish seed should be maintained by controlled breeding techniques using as hypophysation. Records must be maintained for these lines. It is important to keep fish at a number of locations to ensure that the stock is not lost completely as a result of mortality from disease or environmental problems.

Uncontrolled hybridization between carp species should be avoided at farm level.