The first volume of this paper (EIFAC Technical Paper No. 52) defined “Europe” as being that part of the Eurasian continent west of the Urals, excluding the then USSR. The larger associated islands of the Atlantic and Mediterranean were included, as was Turkey which is partly in Europe and partly in Asia. It should be noted that FAO's Yearbook of Fishery Statistics considers Turkey and Cyprus as “Asiatic”. These two countries were, however, included in this paper because both countries are members of the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC) which has played a definite role in the preparation of this paper. It is true that another “Asiatic” country, Israel, is also a member of EIFAC. However, its initial membership was a political consideration, and its inland fisheries have been described by Dill and Ben-Tuvia (1989) in the same manner as has been done here.
If one accepts the findings of FAO based on its Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, and also accepts its definitions of continental affinity (see above) and “catch”, then, using FAO Fisheries Circular C710 Rev. 7 (1990) as a guide, one arrives at the conclusion that in 1987, “Europe” produced 437 000 t of freshwater and diadromous fish. Aquaculture (including small quantities of fish caught in the brackishwater zone) produced 313 000 t of these fish; 124 000 t were taken through capture fisheries. This amounted to 3.6 percent of the world's production of these fish in that year. If one were to add FAO's estimated “catch” in Turkey and Cyprus, and delete the “catch” of the then Democratic Republic of Germany (not treated in EIFAC Technical Paper No. 52), then the total production (FAO's “catch”) of freshwater and diadromous fishes (“inland fisheries production”) in 1987 would have been in FAO's opinion about 462 000 t or 4 percent of the world's production of these fish1.
It seems useless to calculate further since any figures that one can use, including the ones in this paper, are estimates. The major conclusions concerning the inland fisheries of the continent of Europe arrived at by FAO Fisheries Circular C710 Rev. 7 (1990) are that capture fisheries have remained relatively static during the period of 1984–88 and that aquacultural production has increased about 19 percent. As has been emphasized in the first volume of this report and in agreement with Gulland (1970) “too much attention should not be given to the precise value of many of the ‘estimates’”. In other words, the trend is the important thing.
A certain amount of explanation and summarization based on the present publication may be useful in making a more detailed assessment of the inland fisheries of Europe.
First, despite any changes in the name of any European country, or its area, population, or boundaries, the physical geography either of the country or its components remains essentially unchanged. Thus, if it is a “northern” country with a low fishery yield per unit area, it will continue to differ from one in a more southern clime. If it possesses many natural lakes, its fishery will differ from one with very few. In a country which has been divided, each derived component will continue to reflect its original status. Its specific geology, altitude, and climate will continue to determine certain aspects of its faunal assemblage, and to a large extent its yield. Similarly, the importance of a country's marine fisheries will dictate to some extent the relative importance of its inland fisheries and the degree to which the latter are tended.
Second, obviously the type of government will determine to a large degree the state of its fishery, the type of management, and even its statistics. This point has not been stressed in this report, but, especially in light of the present changes in government, this is an important consideration.
Third, now that the second volume of this paper has been completed, the two volumes describe the inland fisheries of thirty-one countries, it may be useful to list some of the detected attributes and trends of this community. They follow:
The statistics for European inland fisheries are improving, but whether primary (usually national or provincial) or secondary (those compiled and sometimes interpreted by agencies like FAO or OECD) they are still uncertain and at best are estimates1. The reasons, which are replete, have been discussed briefly on page 13 of the first volume of this report. Among them are: the size of the catch, the multiplicity of fishing sites and census points, their age, infrequency of the capture fishery, the often voluntary reporting, difficulty of federal governments in obtaining them from their provincial or political components, false or inaccurate reporting in order to evade taxation or simply due to lack of information or laziness which results in repetition, inclusion of brackishwater fisheries with marine fisheries, inclusion of several species groups within a general class or failure to distinguish between species either by the fishermen or by those collecting or compiling the statistics, confusion of recreational with commercial statistics or aquacultural production with that of the capture fishery, inclusion of the products of stocked fish with those which are consumable, and excessive rounding of figures.
The rules and regulations concerning ownership of water areas, water use, capture fisheries, or aquaculture are quite specific, whether they be those of individual countries or its provincial components. They are also subject to frequent change.
There is a general tendency for the commercial capture fisheries to decline, and lessened markets for certain stocks. Concomitant with their decline is a decrease in the number of commercial fishermen and an increase in their average age.
There is, nevertheless, an emphasis for these commercial fisheries to use modern gear (e.g., synthetic fibres for nets and even sonar) instead of the older and cruder gear often derived from natural and local sources.
There is also a traditional feeling in some countries to keep commercial inland capture fisheries alive even if the returns are not large either in food production or monetarily.
Commercial fishermen's associations still persist.
With the decline in commercial fishing there has been a replacement by sport or recreational fishing. (There is some conflict between commercial and recreational fishermen, but it is lessening.) There is, today, a realization that sport fishing is important both emotionally and economically. In some European countries the inland capture fishery has become exclusively recreational.
In some cases, this sport is aided by the government; in other cases it is fostered by private enterprise. Angling associations, whether sponsored by private or public agencies, are important in many countries in securing legislation, maintaining the fisheries, securing special privileges, or fostering companionship. In some cases, sport fishing is used as a means of attracting tourists.
Although stocking has been found to be a useful tool in both sport and commercial fisheries, there is a tendency today to rear and stock lesser numbers but larger fish in order to achieve better survival to the captor.
Although subsistence fishing is almost at an end generally, the idea of individuals or families continuing to live off wild fisheries still persists, and is even sponsored by a few countries which allow special fishing privileges for its “primitive” people.
Aquaculture is rapidly increasing in importance in most European countries. Emphasis is now upon the cultivation of salmonoid fishes (rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon) and eel propagation is also increasing.
There is less emphasis on the cultivation of cyprinid stocks, but the yields from their culture are increasing due to enhancements such as polyculture (especially with the Chinese carp), fertilization, and supplemental feeding. In some cases, much of the cyprinid production (e.g., that of the common carp) is raised for export, marketed to particular ethnic groups, or sold primarily at certain (generally religious) seasons.
Aquaculture is becoming a more technological process with the use of manufactured feeds (rather than natural foods), induced breeding with hormones, heated water, recycling, and the use of mechanical equipment such as automatic feeders, aerators, and graders. It is fast changing from an “old-fashioned” or “natural” process to an artificial one.
The availability of fry for aquaculture is being solved through provision of a constant supply of young stock through artificial propagation and the rearing of brood stock rather than through dependence on wild stocks.
There are also changes in the species cultivated especially with the introduction of such exotic fishes as African catfish and the cichlids.
The use of saline water, especially for salmonoid stocks, and enclosures such as cages in natural waters is increasing.
The growth of aquaculture has been hampered in some countries because of sociological considerations, however, and also because of the danger of pollution from its practice.
The role of disease is most important to aquaculture but also affects wild fishery stocks in some countries, and its occurrence is responsible for certain legislative edicts which prohibit the import or transfer of fish stocks.
In general (with one startling exception) sea-ranching has not been very successful in Europe.
Water pollution is still a major factor in lessening the quality and extent of inland fisheries, especially in areas where water is not abundant. Prevention and abatement processes are, however, on the rise, coupled with growing environmental consciousness. Conversely, practices such as the use of pesticides and compounds which lodge in fish tissues, heavy fertilization, and even aquacultural pollution, make this an extended and constant battle.
There is a growing eutrophication of many natural waters (due primarily to increases in organic substances as a concomitant of man's practices and his aquatic encroachment), so that originally oligotrophic waters have become more fertile (and perhaps more productive) but have changed their populations from salmonoid fishes to cyprinid and other less valued stocks.
Faunal changes have also been engendered by factors such as the introductions of exotic fishes or diseases, and inter-connections in waterways. Emphasis on the taking for profit or sport of predator species has also induced faunal changes.
Introductions or transfers of fishes or other organisms by governments is diminishing as biologists who work for these governments generally disapprove of them. However, certain transfers (such as crayfish or eel) are considered useful by many countries. Furthermore, the ease of transportation today, difficulty of detecting illegal introductions, and the feeling of many people that they are useful leaves introduction as an important factor in faunal changes.
Coarse fishing is increasing as the number of anglers increases, and as stocks of more desirable fish (e.g., salmonids) decline.
The natural aquatic environment such as wetlands and swamps, even natural lakes, is diminishing in most countries due to man's encroachment and use. Thus, the great overflow areas are disappearing, and with them their wild fisheries.
Great harm has been done to some original fisheries through the use of water for other purposes (e.g., the erection of dams and abstraction of water for hydroelectric purposes, irrigation which creates barriers to migratory fishes and diminishes stream capacity, and canalization). The rules for such water-use have been intensified to the advantage of fisheries, but much of the damage remains.
Similarly, although dams have acted as barriers to anadromous stocks, the creation of new reservoirs has enlarged fishing areas, made them more accessible to some, and changed the style of fishing.
Although the role of private fishing and ownership of fishing rights is decreasing in some areas, it still plays an important part in the inland fishing, both recreational and commercial, of many European countries. There is, however, a tendency for placement of the control of the inland fisheries in the hands of the State. There is also a tendency to rely more on the new State environmental agencies rather than the older or better established fishery agencies which in many maritime nations are dominated by marine administrators.
There is still emphasis in a number of countries on fish management, especially through the rearing and stocking of fish, by amateur associations, but as governmental restrictions on their activities grow, their numbers are lessening.
The impingement of license fees by governments is increasing, and the end of free fishing is in sight.
A number of countries continue to be influenced by deleterious events occurring in contiguous or upstream countries, or in the case of acid rain even by faraway countries. There is, however, a greater consciousness of interdependence, and international agreements concerning the regulation of fish stocking and water pollution tends to minimize these difficulties.
Organizations such as the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission (EIFAC) have served as meeting grounds for participants from different countries and aided in this understanding of interdependence.
There is a change in the training of fishery scientists, and more emphasis on fishery management than reliance on, say, limnologists.
There is also, however, an emphasis on their use of modern methodology and a realization that both wild and cultivated species are often composed of rather discrete components.
Governments continue to give a good deal of lip service to their present and prophesied role. Their promises are not always fulfilled, however, and their prognostications (as are those of this paper) are not always correct.
Not stressed in this report, but quite apparent to the author, is the role of individuals, who, speaking in the name of their country or authority, actually determine much of its policy.
Finally, there is a general change in the landscape as the older types of commercial fishing decline, as sport fishing increases, as waters change in their quality and quantity, and as mechanization increases. The landscape itself is becoming less “romantic” or “picturesque” as narrow wooden boats are replaced by metal ones, as reed barriers are replaced by those of concrete and steel, and the old fishing villages disappear.
In summing it up, one can say with respect to the inland fisheries of Europe that the commercial fisheries are declining as recreational and aquacultural fisheries grow, that new technologies are replacing the old, that the role of private fishing is declining, that environmental considerations are more important than ever before, and that there is a growing realization that many of the factors influencing fisheries are quite external to the fishing itself. These phenomena, and the other changes that have been mentioned, are not, however, unique to Europe. This is the way of the world today.
William A. Dill
