1 The purpose of the guidelines
2 An overview of tropical forest management for wood production
3 Further reading
Background
Intended users
Scope of the Guidelines
There is no universal model for the management of tropical forests
The extent of tropical forests being purposely managed on an operational scale for the sustainable production of wood is, on a world scale, very small and may be as little as five per cent of the total tropical forest area. Progress in establishing stable and enduring forest management arrangements is so slow that it is currently having little impact on the general decline and quality of tropical forests. These Guidelines have been written as a partial response to this concern.
Sustainable forest management signifies that due attention be given to the productive, protective, social and environmental aspects in an integrated manner. Recent international efforts have concentrated on efforts to facilitate monitoring of effects of forest management through the specification of criteria, by which sustainability is defined; and the identification of corresponding, quantitative, qualitative and descriptive indicators, to be used as tools for monitoring and evaluation both of the effects of forest management and of possible remedial action taken to improve management strategies and methodologies to better meet specified aims (see Annex 1).
The present Guidelines aim at providing advice related mainly to one of the seven or eight commonly used criteria for sustainable forest management: the productive functions of the forest; and more specifically, on the production of timber, wood and wood products from forest ecosystems.
A companion volume on management of tropical forests for the production of non-wood products is currently in preparation. Forestry Paper 107, "Conservation of Genetic Resources in Tropical Forest Management" (FAO 1993), in turn, reviews principles and concepts related to genetic aspects of tropical forest management. Documentation on forest management planning; and on socio-economic aspects of tropical forest management is also and on will provide complementary information in this regard.
The main purpose of these Guidelines is to promote and encourage more extensive application of forest management practices for the production of wood that will ensure that tropical forests will improve the contribution of the forestry sector as a component of sustainable social and economic development. It is hoped that they will fill a need for procedural and practical guidance on how managers working in and close to tropical forests can plan and undertake operations where the production of wood is the main objective, within the wider framework of a comprehensive strategy into which the various complementary components of sustainability are incorporated in a holistic manner.
The primary users of these Guidelines will be those involved in forest planning and management at the operational forest level. Users are likely to be government district forest officers, concession managers and supervisors, managers and planners of privately-owned forests, supervisors of logging and wood processing companies and forest supervisors of local communities and of non-governmental organizations having a managerial role with tropical forests. It need not of course be limited to these predominantly field users. Others are forestry students, lecturers and personnel involved with forestry sector development planning and policy development. The attention of users should be drawn to the fact that wood production constitutes one of many, mutually complementary and generally compatible uses and functions of forests and forest ecosystems, and that management for the production of wood should invariably be within the wider framework of forest management.
Within the framework of sustainable forest management, the present Guidelines cover the management of tropical forests for wood production, because they are among the largest wood sources in tropical developing countries and, equally importantly, because there is a compelling need for well planned management of them. Emphasis upon wood production recognises that timber and other wood products from tropical forests are in high and continuing demand worldwide and that wood can to be produced profitably from them on a sustainable basis through careful management, which duly considers also the other values of forest ecosystems. It is an acknowledgement that, in most cases, revenue from wood production is likely to be the most secure source of funding for maintaining the range of environmental services that tropical forests can provide.
The Guidelines, in focusing mainly on the criterion of maintaining the productive functions of the forest, and more specifically on the production of wood and non-wood products, are intended to be practical and provide advice on how to plan and manage tropical forests for the sustainable production of wood. Principles rather than detail are highlighted thereby enabling potential users to adapt the guidance offered to their own local situations. They do not provide a comprehensive presentation of new methodologies that are being developed for forest management. The aim has been to keep the Guidelines relatively simple and focused on basic issues concerned with how the production of wood in tropical forests can be planned and implemented in practice at an operational level. It is a response to an expressed need for basic guidance on topics concerning the sustainable production of wood in tropical forests which were not easily available. It is recognised that it is difficult at the present time to include all aspects of sustainable forest management in one book and these Guidelines do not attempt to do this.
It is acknowledged that environmental and social considerations are important in planning a balanced approach to sustainable management of tropical forests for wood production. The Guidelines will, to some extent, consider soil, water and biological diversity conservation and the interests of forest dependent communities.
The Guidelines may be read in their entirety in order to provide a comprehensive review of the steps involved in maintaining and sustainably utilising the productive functions of the tropical forest, or they may be referred to part-by-part for detail on specific stages of management focused on wood production. Selected books, papers and reports having relevance to topics covered in each part are listed. These include references to information presented in the Guidelines which may be referred to for greater detail on specific topics. The Guidelines complement other publications currently under preparation elsewhere. Each has its own focus but collectively are all expected to contribute towards the goal of achieving sustainable tropical forest management that will be of enduring value to forest communities, to forest owners and to others who have direct interests in them. Advice has been drawn from existing knowledge and experience in tropical Asia, Africa and America.
There are two strong arguments in support of management for the production of wood in natural tropical forests. The first is that no ecologically satisfactory alternative land uses to natural forests are to be found for many tropical sites because they are too infertile for agriculture. Secondly, wood having the qualities found in many types of tropical forests cannot be produced as cheaply, in large dimensions or in the quantities required to meet present and future industrial requirements from intensively managed plantations on the same infertile sites. Maintaining the land under a permanent forest cover, and adopting a planned basis of sustained yield management within an overall, sustainable forest management plan, is usually the most appropriate long-term development strategy.
Significant policy, legislative, technical, economic and social differences between countries mean that each country needs to approach the challenge of determining an effective development strategy in its own way.
It is because of such wide-ranging variation that there can be no single approach or method for achieving sustainable management of tropical forests where wood production is the main objective. Although these Guidelines do not illustrate all methods or techniques that can be applied for securing better quality and more extensive forest management, they do aim to describe principles, systems and a number of practical ways that can be adapted to help improve management practices pertaining to the criterion related to the production of wood. Flexibility and adaptation of principles and advice will enable national forest managers to develop their own approach to forest management, considering the opportunities and constraints of each case.
Whilst there is no universal model for sustainable management of tropical forests, there is a considerable body of collective knowledge and experience from tropical Asia, America and Africa which can be shared and adapted to local circumstances. It is hoped that the advice set out on the sustained production of wood and wood products in these Guidelines can be adapted to the situations prevailing in each country which will gradually lead to meaningful increases in the extent of tropical forests that can be managed on a sustainable basis for wood production.
A definition of tropical forests
The current status of tropical forests in the world
Rates of deforestation of tropical forests
Forest utilisation
Forests growing in tropical regions vary widely in composition, structure,, function and productivity because of the diversity of climates, soil types and biogeographic conditions where they grow. Definitions of tropical forests are varied. For the purposes of these Guidelines they are considered to comprise two forest classes, namely, evergreen tropical rainforests and moist deciduous tropical forests as defined by FAO in Figure 1. These classes are sometimes grouped together and referred to as Tropical High Forests, located in the tropical belt of the world where the dry season is short or does not occur at all. Both classes are of seedling origin that normally develop a high closed canopy.
Figure 1: Forest Classes Comprising Tropical Forests
|
Evergreen Tropical Rainforests: Occur where the annual rainfall is greater than 2,500 mm, where forests grow mostly at low elevations, are evergreen, luxuriant, predominantly of hardwood species, have a complex structure and are rich in both plants and animals. Soils tend to be shallow and poor in nutrients, features having a marked effect on forest management practices. Moist Deciduous Tropical Forests: Occur where the annual rainfall is between 1,000 and 2,500 mm. The composition and structure vary greatly depending on rainfall distribution, temperature and soil types. They are less rich in tree species and much less biologically diverse than the tropical rainforests. |
Source: FAO, 1993. The Challenge of Sustainable Forest Management.
Tropical forest occurs in more than 80 countries and, in 1990, occupied 37 per cent of the total land area of the tropical regions, about one-third of the world's forest cover. They are the source of most of the wood harvested in the tropics. Within this large area is a diverse range of forest types, but they may be broadly grouped into four main classes:
|
- Evergreen tropical rainforests |
- Moist deciduous forests |
|
- Dry forest zones |
- Upland forest formations. |
The greatest concentration of evergreen tropical rainforests is in Central and tropical South America, constituting 52 per cent of the total world area, much of it in the Amazon Basin. Africa has the next largest area (29 per cent) and a smaller area occurs in Asia (19 per cent). Most moist deciduous forests occur in Africa and Latin America. This class is now less extensive than tropical rainforests because much of the land where it formerly occurred is well suited for human settlement, has been cleared and is now used for agriculture and other purposes. Bamboo and rattan are also significant resources in many tropical forests.
Although the extent of the world's forests is still substantial with some 40 per cent of the earth's land surface under various types of tree cover, there are major differences in the rates of forest loss amongst different forest types. Tropical forests and other types, such as dry and upland forest formations, are estimated to have covered some 1,790 million hectares in 1990, down more than 120 million hectares in the 10 years from 1980, a decline of 0.8 per cent annually in tropical developing countries. The decline has continued in the period between 1990 and 1995. Forest cover and mated rates of deforestation in tropical forests are illustrated in Tables 1 and 2.
Recent estimates suggest that nearly two-thirds of tropical deforestation worldwide is due to farmers clearing land for agriculture. The largest losses are occurring in tropical moist forests, the zone best suited for human
Table 1: Tropical Land Area and Forest Cover (million ha)
|
Tropical Region |
Land Area of Each Region |
Total Forested Area in 1990 | |
|
|
|
Tropical Rainforests |
Moist Deciduous Forests |
|
Africa |
772.1 |
86.6 |
251.1 |
|
Asia |
450.6 |
177.4 |
41.8 |
|
America |
1,013.6 |
454.3 |
294.3 |
|
World Total |
2,236.3 |
718.3 |
587.2 |
Source: FAO. 1993. Forest Resources Assessment 1990 - tropical countries.
Table 2: Tropical Forest Cover and Deforestation (million ha)
|
Tropical Region |
Total Forested Area |
Annual Rate of Deforestation | ||
|
|
1990 |
1995 |
Area |
Percent |
|
Africa |
523 |
505 |
-3.7 |
-0.7 |
|
Asia |
295 |
280 |
-3 |
-1.1 |
|
America |
85 |
79 |
-1 |
-1.3 |
|
Oceania |
43 |
42 |
-0.15 |
-0.4 |
Source: FAO. 1997. The State of the World's Forests 1997. settlement and agriculture.
As an important part of the economies of most tropical countries forests provide a wide range of products, including timber, fuel, food, medicines and building materials; they also have prominent environmental values. Fuelwood utilisation is increasingly important as data in Table 3 for tropical developing countries show. The figures probably underestimate the real level of utilization because of unrecorded cutting. Fuelwood production in tropical developing countries in 1994 is estimated to have been 67 per cent of total roundwood production.
Table 3: Fuelwood Production from Tropical Forests in 1984 and 1994 (million cubic metres)
|
World |
Tropical Asia & the Pacific |
Tropical Africa |
Tropical America | ||||
|
1984 |
1994 |
1984 |
1994 |
1984 |
1994 |
1984 |
1994 |
|
1,117 |
1,399 |
614 |
747 |
313 |
419 |
189 |
233 |
Source: FAO Yearbook: Forest Products. 1994, Rome.
Timber has been a primary source of income through trade in logs. Forests have also been used as security for loans and debt relief and through the exchange of concession rights for the construction of physical infrastructure. A prominent production component from tropical forests is sawlogs and veneer logs, largely from unsustainably managed forests, as 1994 data in Table 4 illustrate.
Table 4: Sawlog and Veneer Log Production from Tropical Forests in 1994 (mill cubic metres)
|
World |
Tropical Asia & the Pacific |
Tropical Africa |
Tropical America |
|
895.1 |
173.5 |
19.9 |
72.4 |
Source: FAO Yearbook: Forest Products, 1994, Rome.
Considerable regional variation exists in the rates of commercial log recovery from tropical forests. For example, commercial levels of log production are about 8 m3/ha in Latin America and the Caribbean region, 14 m3/ha in Africa and 33 m3/ha in the Asia and Pacific region. There is considerable variation within regions. Log production in Indonesia, for example, is commonly 50-100 m3/ha and in Colombia can be as low as 6 m3/ha.
de Montalembert, M. R. & Schmithüsen, F. 1994. Policy, Legal and Institutional Aspects of Sustainable Forest Management. In "Readings in Sustainable Forest Management". Forestry Paper No. 122, FAO, Rome.
Dubourdieu, Jean. 1997. L'Aménagement Forestier: Gestion Durable et Intégrée des Ecosystèmes Forestiers. Office National des Forêts, Paris, [in print]
FAO. 1993. The Challenge of Sustainable Forest Management - what future for the world's forests? Rome.
FAO. 1994. FAO Yearbook: Forest Products. Rome.
FAO. 1997. The State of the World's Forests 1997. Rome.
Grayson, A. J. (Ed.) 1995. The World's Forests: International Initiatives since Rio. Commonwealth Forestry Association, Oxford.
IIED. 1997. Sustainable Forest Management: a practical guide. IIED-SGS Forestry, London.
Johnson, N. & Cabarle, B. 1993. Surviving The Cut: Natural Forest Management in the Humid Tropics. World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
Leslie, A. J. 1994. Sustainable Management of Tropical Moist Forest for Wood. In "Readings in Sustainable Forest Management". Forestry Paper No. 122, FAO, Rome.
Poore, D. 1989. No Timber Without Trees - Sustainability in the Tropical Forest, Earthscan Publications Ltd, London.
Rowe, R. Sharma, N. P. & Browder, J. 1992. Deforestation: problems causes and concerns. In "Managing the World's Forests: looking for balance between conservation and development". Dubuque, Iowa.
Synnott, T. J. 1992. The Introduction of Basic Management into Tropical Forests. In "Wise Management of Tropical Forests 1992." 91-95 p. Oxford Forestry Institute.
United Nations. 1992. Earth Summit - Rio Declaration & Forest Principles. UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Dept. of Public Information, United Nations, New York.
WRI. 1992. World Resources 1992-93: A Guide to the Global Environment. World Resources Institute. Oxford University Press, New York.
