Part I. Research and practice - Training - Publications
Part II. Test plantations - Certification - International registers
Economic justification of the investments
The Symposium stressed the need for economically well founded plans for forest pathological and entomological research and practice. The economic results of investments should be calculated in co-operation with economists, silviculturists and other specialists. Control of Lophodermium pinastri in nurseries was mentioned as an example. The aim here is not only to find the fungicide which provides the best protection of the pine plants, but also to estimate, if necessary in co-operation with other specialists, the procedure which gives the best economic results. As a basis for the estimate the following should be taken into consideration:
1. The increase in financial yield after application of different promising control measures.2. The additional cost entailed by the different alternatives of control, the cost of forest pathological work included.
On the basis of such calculations the economic results can be evaluated. Such a procedure is necessary to get a sound basis for estimating the economic justification of forest pathological research and practice. It was recommended by the Symposium that the orientation of research programs and the appropriate expenditures for forest pest research, surveys, and control should be based on wider and better quantitative evaluation of direct and indirect losses from forest diseases and insects.
Research and practice
CENTRAL ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
The greater part of the research work must be paid for and carried out by individual countries. But central and effective organizations are certainly a good investment. Such organizations could encourage and co-ordinate the work and synthesize data from the whole world. One concrete proposal at the Symposium was that two central organizations, one for forest pathology and one for forest entomology, should:
1. Organize screening of the most important collections to obtain a more complete survey of genera and other taxa that include dangerous forest pathogens or insects.2. Build up card indexes of actually, or potentially, dangerous forest pathogens and forest insects. The indexes could be based on material in the major abstracting journals, on results from the screening of collections, and on other material from individual countries or groups of countries, such as results from test plantings, lists of insects and pathogens, distribution maps, annual reports, and other mycological-pathological and entomological papers. Each combination of pathogen and host species, or of insect and host species, should have one card, or more if necessary. The cards should at least give the geographical distribution, the seriousness, and the hosts.
There were suggestions to the effect that certain well-established institutes might undertake such duties; some such institutes had previously been contacted and were willing to consider the possibilities of co-operation, but they would need some financial support.
The Symposium recommended that FAO appoint, at the earliest possible date, qualified additional staff in the field of forest diseases and forest insects. They would stimulate international co-operation and provide information and guidance. The duties of the staff might include the following tasks:
1. Co-ordination of test plantings.2. Establishment of centers of dossiers for selected dangerous forest pathogens and insects. The dossiers should contain all important information on selected pathogens, such as scientific papers, maps, quarantine regulations, etc.
3. Encouragement and co-ordination of experimental work on specially chosen, important pathogens and insects.
4. Preparation and distribution of instructions for direct and indirect control. Publication of short papers on single diseases or pests, describing; inter alia, the damage and control measures.
5. Suggestion of quarantine regulations for groups of countries.
In such tasks, FAO would have to co-operate with IUFRO to get the closest possible contact with forest research organizations scattered all over the world. The benefits of such close co-operation between FAO and IUFRO were stressed by the Symposium. The two working groups under IUFRO, Section 24 (Forest Protection), concerned respectively with international co operation in forest pathology research and in forest insect research would have a natural role to play in this connection.
Appointment by FAO of specialized staff in the fields of forest diseases and forest insects would be a major achievement of the Oxford Symposium.
ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE IN GROUPS OF COUNTRIES OR IN INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES
Groups of countries with similar forest conditions have the best possibilities for rational co-operation in forest pathology and in forest entomology. The Symposium recognized the benefits which are already being derived from regional working groups or conferences, as in the Nordic countries, eastern Europe, and North America, and it strongly encouraged forest pathologists and forest entomologists in other parts of the world to form similar groups. The Symposium also proposed that FAO stimulate the formation of regional research laboratories for groups of countries which have common forest interests and which lack research facilities.
Some kinds of research which have to be carried out by groups of countries or single countries, and which are of great general interest, were specially considered. For instance, the Symposium recommended periodic pathological and entomological examinations of the many plantations of exotic trees established throughout the world in order to appraise the disease and insect susceptibility and hazard for important tree species under given ecological conditions.
Training
In most countries there is a critical lack of forest pathologists and forest entomologists. This is particularly serious in those developing countries which lack training possibilities. At the Oxford Symposium it was not possible to devote to this question the time necessary for a detailed discussion. But the existing possibilities for co-operation between developing countries and countries with good training facilities were emphasized. Students from developing countries may, for example, attend universities in foreign countries for one or more years, and then perhaps develop their research-thesis project, under the direction of a university in their own country.
An effective practical-theoretical training aimed at the special need of the different developing countries may be provided by well-trained forest pathologists or forest entomologists. Their work in developing countries may benefit greatly from co-operation with one or two native young men who have an intimate knowledge of the country and its forests. At the same time the specialists may, conveniently train the young men in those aspects of theoretical and practical forest pathology or forest entomology which are important for that country.
The Symposium recommended that countries with a well-trained staff and necessary equipment train forest pathologists and forest entomologists from developing countries, giving attention to the desirability of making such training available in the home countries of the students. The services of FAO might be used for coordinating such training schemes.
Publications
CENTRAL ORGANIZATION OF PUBLICATIONS
Central organizations for publications in forest pathology and forest entomology would be beneficial. The organizations might encourage and co-ordinate publications and synthesize data from all over the world. One concrete proposal at the Symposium was that two central organizations should publish:
1. Worldwide synthesized and annotated lists of noxious pathogens and insects.2. Worldwide distribution maps for actually or potentially dangerous forest pathogens and forest insects.
Again, such work would require financial support. The Symposium, however, recommended that FAO or other suitable organizations, compile for different regions lists of the pathogens and insects most likely to be a potential danger. Where necessary, the lists should be annotated. They would have to be revised periodically as new information became available.
It was also proposed that a central organization should prepare for all the world short papers on important pests, giving descriptions and stating the damage and control measures.
In connection with the organization of publications the International Tree Disease Register, known as the INTREDIS register, should also be mentioned. This is a system of mechanized world literature search, using electronic data processing. According to the proposal, "References to pertinent literature would be coded on machine-sorted punch-cards, with respect to subject, host plant, causal organism or group of organisms, country in which the work was done, language in which the article is written, and a volume, year and page reference to the article in an abstracting journal. Each card would also bear the author's name, uncoded, and the title, or an abbreviation of it if long, also uncoded, printed in English." A special committee was established to consider this matter in liaison with all existing bodies working in this field.
ORGANIZATION OF PUBLICATIONS IN GROUPS OF COUNTRIES OR IN INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES
A better developed central organization would further co-ordinate forest pest publications in groups of countries or in individual countries. Uniformity of presentation would facilitate subsequent worldwide synthesizing of the lists, maps, and reports. For instance, it would be an advantage if the reports from the different groups of countries or individual countries were all arranged in the same way, for example, in alphabetical order according to the scientific names of the pathogens or insects.
The Symposium recommended preparation of annotated lists of pathogens and insects. Lists for the host genera Pinus, Populus and Quercus, already prepared for some countries, should be extended to cover more countries, and the work should be expanded to include other important genera.
The Symposium also recommended that periodic, preferably annual, reports on forest disease and insect conditions should be published for all countries, and in a way facilitating international use.
Efficient international co-operation on forest diseases and insects is dependent on the collaboration of all countries which have forests of importance. Some such countries were not represented at the Symposium, and the desirability of enlisting their co-operation was emphasized.
Establishment of disease susceptibility plantations
The idea of test plantations, or disease plantations, has been brought up on several occasions during the last decade. It was again given a thorough airing and the advantages and disadvantages discussed.
The concept envisages centers where exotic tree species are to be planted to give information on their susceptibility to the pathogenic organisms existing in that country. It is claimed that this would yield valuable information on the likely effect of the organisms if transferred elsewhere on to new hosts.
This is the main advantage claimed, and examples, such as the spread of Cronartium ribicola, are quoted as catastrophes which might have been prevented had such information been acted upon. Other advantages claimed are the use which other forest disciplines, such as mensuration or genetics, could make of such plantations.
The disadvantages are serious, and have been emphasized by all who commented on the scheme. The intrinsic difficulties comprise adequate sampling of large areas in order to expose a species to the full spectrum of possible diseases, the difficulty of forecasting how an organism will behave in a changed environment, and catering for unknown or apparently harmless organisms which may become important elsewhere. Practical difficulties are no less formidable. The most valuable information would accrue from the most pathologically unexplored regions - precisely where plantations would be most difficult to initiate, supervise and inspect.
There might be difficulties over finance - particularly where one country had to carry out plantings for the benefit of another. There would certainly be difficulty over adequate supervision and inspection by trained pathologists.
All who commented on the scheme emphasized the need for first assembling all relevant data from two sources. These are: firstly, the vast literature on diseases of exotics, and, secondly, the extensive plantings of exotics in arboreta, sample plots, silvicultural trials, etc., which exist in practically every country with an organized forest service. It is doubtful whether in any country such existing exotic plantings are regularly surveyed for disease. Obviously until this can be done, there is little point in superimposing a further scheme of plantings.
There seemed general agreement that a centrally directed, elaborate scheme of plantings was out of place. It would be better for such exchanges to take place between individuals or countries for specific cases. This has already been done, for instance, between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom where Ulmus clones are exposed to infection by Ceratocystis ulmi in England, and also where the United Kingdom tested Canadian species of aspen for susceptibility to Melampsora pinitorqua rust. Such cases demand the minimum of expense and are most likely to be productive.
As a result, a recommendation was made that periodic pathological and entomological examinations be made of the many plantations of exotic trees established throughout the world in order to appraise disease and insect susceptibility and hazard.
Certification1
1 BIER, J. E. Some factors related to disease certification programs.
Where cuttings or whole plants are certified as disease-free stock, some attempt should be made to maintain a satisfactory moisture content in such stock in view of the great importance of moisture content in controlling attack by organisms. Alternatively, in view of Butin's work with poplar cuttings, the weight of cuttings of uniform size might be used instead. Also, where pathogenicity studies are made as part of such a program, the cuttings should be uniform as regards moisture content. For any clone "threshold values" might be found at which attack by different pathogens becomes possible. Knowledge of moisture content likely to be attained by such stock under field conditions would indicate likelihood of attack by the different organisms whose "threshold values" were known.
Certain factors affect facultative parasites of the bark of cuttings. Important among these are naturally occurring saprophytes which may show antagonism toward parasites such as Hypoxylon pruinatum. Chemical treatment of cuttings may have a detrimental effect by suppressing a protective bark flora and rendering a cutting more liable to attack by a parasite. These are cases where cuttings have been protected from attack by the application of aqueous suspensions of microbiological flora obtained from healthy material. The us of such a method, either by itself or following chemical treatment of cuttings, may be suggested as part of a certification scheme.
For the techniques employed in testing material for susceptibility, the effect on the local microbiological flora in the vicinity of the inoculation site is important. Different treatments may have different effects on the microflora and hence on the success, or otherwise, of the inoculation. Another important factor is the amount and type of the inoculum used. This may have an important effect on the ability of the organism to compete with the bark parasites.
The Symposium felt that the ideas and theories outlined were interesting and deserved further research; that they were, however, not sufficiently documented or ripe for being the subject of recommendations in connection with certification.
Registers2
2 HEPTING, G. H. The INTREDIS register for world literature retrieval in forest pathology.
Considerable difficulties are encountered in assembling references to any particular aspect of pathology (literature retrieval). This occurs, for instance, when study of a particular disease is undertaken. As well as being time consuming, this is often incomplete, since foreign literature may be inadequately searched.
A system for the retrieval of world literature on forest pathology was proposed, to be called the International Tree Disease Register (INTREDIS). This would be based on a card system, the cards to be sorted at high speed electronically. Each card would carry both coded and uncoded information and would relate to an abstract of a particular paper. It is important to note that the system as proposed would refer only to abstracts and not to original papers. All the main abstracting journals would be covered. Cross referencing would be possible. Users would be supplied with the appropriate codes and the information supplied to them would come in the form of a list of titles, each referring to an article in an abstracting journal. In the title, the author and the name of the paper would be written in English, but all other data would be coded. The latter would comprise subject, host genus or species, country where the work was done, pathogen genus or species, language of original article, volume and page of an abstracting journal and the year of publication.
Examples of the use of the system were given. Users could request all references to a certain pathogen, for instance, or to a particular host or to a certain organism in a particular region. There would be no language bias, since the retrieval would be international.
To be workable, the system should be kept simple. There should be no attempt to retrieve all forest literature or to include elaborate cross referencing. This would require a more complicated and costly system, probably necessitating the use of punched tape and an electronic computer. However, if developments in forestry in the future ever warranted it, the INTREDIS data could be transferred from cards to tape.
The Symposium felt that these proposals were important and deserving of follow-up action. They would be valuable at several levels, including in developing countries and new institutes. Coding was very important and authors should be careful when deciding upon titles.
The point the FAO/IUFRO Committee on Forestry Bibliography was interested in was co-operation.
In conclusion, an ad hoc working group was appointed to elaborate the proposals, to liaise with all interested bodies, and to discuss such matters as the location of the register, responsibilities for various functions, and financing. This found expression in recommendation No. 26 (see Recommendations).
