Annex VIII-1

SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES IN BANGLADESH

Ataur Rahman
Director of Fisheries

I. STATUS AND PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES

Bangladesh like many other tropical countries with a large area of coastal low-lying lands and a very high tidal amplitude, has been developing an extensive area of coastal aquafarming in brackishwater ponds during the last few years, particularly shrimp farming. Initially the industry was based only on the outputs of a traditional fishery, however it has grown remarkably in the last two decades. The present practice has to some extent an antecedent in an older traditional fish and shrimp culture practice known as the ‘bher’ fishery. In this system, fish and shrimp postlarvae and juveniles transported by tidal waters were usually allowed to enter the low-lying areas and paddy fields/salterns through a small-scale embankment and a system of artificial channels. These organisms were then allowed to grow naturally, however the yields were reported to be very low.

There is a wide variation in farming systems. Some ponds exchange water prior to stocking which starts in December. In salt producing areas, salt production may carry on until May if the rainfall is low. At the end of the salt production season, water exchange and stocking are intensified. Later shrimp culturists started to collect wild shrimp post-larvae from nature in addition to their traditional and routine practice. Some farmers also completely changed their culture practice by only stocking artificial shrimp larvae, screening the incoming waters as well as introducing supplementary feeds to shrimp ponds, i.e. a semi-intensive culture system. However, the majority of these farmers still practice the traditional or extensive culture method.

Bangladesh has developed considerable technical know-how in freshwater fish farming, however very little or virtually no development has so far taken place in marine/brackishwater finfish breeding and culture. Some marine fish species e.g. mullet, seabass, etc., can probably be utilized for brackishwater culture. Some studies towards this objective were planned and partly undertaken to determine the distribution, abundance and larval species composition with particular attention to culturable species under the auspices of the Marine Fisheries Survey Management and Development Project of the Directorate of Fisheries.

Different types of edible and ornamental bivalves (oyster, mussel, cockle, etc.) are widely distributed in the littoral and sub-littoral zone, as well as in the deeper water of the Bay. However the majority of the country's population does not traditionally eat bivalves. As a result major shell harvesting from natural resources has not yet taken place. Few shells are being harvested for consumption by tribal and lowercaste people, while others are harvested for use in the lime and shell craft industries. Window-pane oysters, in particular, are harvested at Cox's Bazar, Teknaf, Moheskhali & Sonadia Island for the collection of pseudo-pearls.

Some research works has been done on the taxonomy and ecology of bivalves to identify the culturable species and their ecological habitat. Several experiments have also been conducted, particularly on the culture techniques and spat collection. Experiments on oyster and cockle culture were conducted under the Marine Fisheries Research, Management & Development Project with financial and technical assistance of FAO/UNDP in 1983–84. The experimental findings recommended the development of this aquaculture sector, as the country offers extensive areas suitable for the culture of oyster and other bivalves such as mussel and cockle (Pagcatipunan, 1984).

Preliminary studies on the mud crab (Scylla serrata) revealed that it has great potential for commercial exploitation, domestic utilization as well as an item for the export market.

Seaweeds are naturally available in the littoral and sub-littoral zones of St. Martin's Island. A number of seaweeds species have been recorded from the St. Martin's Island and adjacent areas out of which ten species are reported to be commercially important. The study of seaweed resources in Bangladesh is a very recent phenomenon and complete information and statistics in this regards are not available at this stage.

The Government of Bangladesh has stressed the need to develop the seafarming industry. Accordingly, the Marine Fisheries Survey, Management & Development Project is preparing a TAPP on shrimp (P. monodon) backyard hatchery, culture of finfish, as well as bivalve molluscs crabs, and seaweeds under the technical assistance of BOBP/FAO. In the meantime, an experimental hatchery on the freshwater prawn (M. rosenbergii) has been set up.

II. PRODUCTION AND AREA UNDER COASTAL AQUACULTURE

A fairly reliable total production data from coastal aquaculture in Bangladesh is not possible since reliable statistics are not available. Some calculations have been made to provide a general indication of the magnitude of production by different authors. Overall export figures are available from the Export Promotion Bureau, but the break-up for the different sources of production is not available.

The quantity of shrimp exported from Bangladesh in 1989–90 was approximately 17,505 metric tonnes (Table 1). Only about 5,000 MT was harvested from offshore. The remaining 12,505 MT came from other sources, which include the freshwater Macrobrachium fishery, cultured shrimp and the small-scale artisanal estuarine fishery.

Table 1. Value (in million TK) and quantity (in MT) of frozen shrimp exported from Bangladesh during FSY 1982–83 to 1989–90 (Source: EPB).

The area under shrimp and fish farming was estimated at about 115,051 hectares. The per hectare shrimp production has been estimated at 60–100 kg, 200–250 kg and 800–1000 kg by extensive, semi-intensive and intensive culture methods, respectively.

The production of finfish from shrimp ponds is 52–96 kg/hectare.

Potential coastal area for bivalve culture is estimated at 700 hectares, while floating raft culture in open sea and in the estuary, has been shown to be possible.

Annual production of edible bivalve molluscs is estimated to be around 200 MT.

The approximate area of natural seaweed beds is 10 square kilometres. In terms of surface area, about 50 square km could be utilized for culture expansion. Approximately 15 MT of seaweeds of various species were produced in 1989. The farming areas are mostly located in the Khulna (Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira districts) and Cox's Bazar regions. The major aquaculture districts are indicated in Table 2.

Table 2. Distribution of coastal aquaculture areas by districts.

(a) = Liaquat Ali, 1983.
(b) = Fisheries Inf. Bull. Vol. 3 No. 1, 1986, DOF.
(c) = A.Q. Chowdhury, 1986.

III. SPECIES CULTURED

The main cultured species in Bangladesh is the giant tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon. Generally the species is considered most desirable due to its large size, high price in the domestic as well as export market, fast growth rate, high tolerance to a wide range of salinity and temperature, favourable food conversion ratios as well as to its hardy nature.

Other species of shrimp and finfish produced in coastal farms are:

1. Penaeus semisulcatus
2. P. merguiensis
3. P. indicus
4. Metapenaeus monoceros
5. M. brevicornis
6. Lates calcarifer
7. Mugil cephalus
8. M. corsula
9. Eleutheronema tetradactylum
10. Mystus gulio, etc.

The species of seaweeds that can be cultured commercially are:

1. Caulerpa sertularioides (green algae)
2. C. racemosa (green algae)
3. Enteromorpha sp. (green algae)
4. Hydroclathrus clathratus (brown algae)
5. Sargassum sp. (green algae)
6. Gelidiella tenuissima (red algae)
7. Helimenia discoidea (red algae)
8. Hypnea valentiae (red algae)
9. H. pannosa (red algae)
10. Gelidium pusillum (red algae)

Culturable bivalve molluscs species are:

1. Crassostrea spp.
2. Saccostrea sp.
3. Placuna spp.
4. Anadara spp.
5. Mytilus spp.

IV. RULES AND REGULATIONS

Shrimp farming is mostly practiced in government Khash land and private land leased from land owners. Mainly Khash Lands are distributed on a 10-year lease basis by the Ministry of L.A. and L.R. For proper utilization of coastal lands, about 2,800 ha of land was handed over to the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. The Fisheries Ministry distributed these lands through DOF to farmers and provided technical and financial assistance for farming through bank loans and foreign aid credit. The DOF also developed the facilities in those areas.

A clear cut land use policy based on the land topography, soil quality, hydrobiological and environmental factors is lacking. This creates various problems like proper utilization of land, inter-sectoral conflicts between forest, fisheries and agriculture. Sometimes Khash lands traversed through a private farm are leased out to a third party which creates management problems.

Many favourable decisions have since been taken for the development of shrimp farming still lots of problems remain to be resolved. In Khulnaarea, the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) permits salt water intrusion in some of the polders for shrimp culture project on condition that the water control structures must be as per BWDB specifications which is very much expensive and large structure. But shrimp farmers are not interested to invest heavily on lands that are available only on short-term lease.

The law and order situation in the farming areas deteriorates during harvesting periods, expecially during the spring tidal periods when the shrimp is harvested and monetary transactions are made. The farmers always feel insecure. Closer cooperation and better understanding amongst the farmers and more active surveillance by the law enforcing agencies might discourage miscreants.

No specific rules and guidelines have been provided for the culture of nontraditional species. These ventures are, however, encouraged as a general principle.

V. CRITERIA FOR SITE SELECTION

a. Basic site selection criteria for shrimp and fish farming.

1. Topography
2. Soil type
3. Tidal condition
4. Water quality
5. Wave and wind action
6. Cyclonic and flood hazard.

Topography: The sites should generally be flat or gently sloping towards the outlet.

Soil type: The soil must retain water. It should have enough clay to make the ponds practically water tight. The bottom soil should be muddy. Acidic soil is harmful for coastal aquaculture. Porous (sandy/gravelly) and peaty (organic) soils must be avoided.

Tidal condition: An ideal brackishwater environment must be maintained in a culture pond at all times. The pond bed level should be above the low water during ordinary neap tide. If the pond water level is maintained below the high water ordinary neap tide, then easy water exchange is possible. Site elevation and tidal amplitude should be such that adequate flooding is possible at every tide.

Water quality: Primarily, a constant supply of brackishwater must be available to the ponds throughout the year. The water supply should be free from organic and chemical pollutants. Knowledge of salinity profiles of the water sources at the site to be selected is essential. Heavy freshwater run-off could be hazardous to the well being of the cultured animals. Sudden fall in salinity and, change in pH and specific density would cause heavy shrimp mortalities.

Wind action: The wind velocity and direction are two of the important parameters for selection of culture sites.

Cyclonic and flood hazards: If the area is prone to cyclones and floods it should be avoided.

b. Site selection for bivalve

The following are the criteria which have been established through local experiments. The following rules should be taken into account in future farming development of commercially important bivalve species:

1. Presence of oyster stocks: The presence of local oyster stocks is a strong indication of the ecological conditions prevailing in the area which is considered directly suitable as a farming site.

2. Salinity: Oysters grow best in areas with a salinity range between 17–35 ppt. The site selected should have this range, and areas with very wide fluctuation of salinity should be avoided.

3. Water current: The selected site should have a continuous water current, in order to have a constant supply of food particles and for flushing of metabolic wastes. Strong current however, should be avoided as a precaution against damage of rafts and other culture structures.

4. Substrate: The nature of the bottom will determine the method of culture to be applied. Firm or hard bottoms are favourable for bottom culture methods. Muddy bottoms are suitable for stake or pole methods. Floating rafts and suspension lines can be set above any kind of substrates.

5. Water depth: The site to be selected should be in the intertidal area. It should have an elevation between 0.5 meter below and above the zero tide level.

6. Exposure of wind/wave action: Sheltered areas free from strong wind and wave action should be selected.

7. Pollution: The sites selected should be free from pollution. Oysters grown or harvested from polluted areas are unfit for consumption.

8. Accessibility: Accessibility is another essential criterion for site selection.

VI. INSTITUTION FOR COASTAL AQUACULTURE, TRAINING AND EXTENSION

Two DOF development projects are working towards the development and extension of shrimp culture industry in Bangladesh. Several ADB projects are also involved in coastal aquaculture. These projects arrange training programmes for private farmers as well as conduct short training and extension service for the shrimp farmers. The IDA shrimp culture project supports two branches, each headed by a Deputy Project Director (DPD), one at Khulna another at Cox's Bazar. The Demonstration Farm cum Training Centre (DFTC) and Hatchery under the IDA project is responsible for demonstration on coastal shrimp farming as well as the arrangement of training of farmers and DOF officers. The hatchery of the centre is responsible for the establishment of a commercial P. monodon hatchery. This unit also helps towards the establishment of other hatcheries by the private sector. Local training for DOF officers and coastal farmers have been arranged jointly by DOF and FAO/UNDP.

References

Hossain, M.A., S. Yamasaki and H. Hirata. 1988. Studies on the rearing of prawn larvae, Penaeus japonicus Bate, under bioconversion system. I. Culture and nutritive value of marine Chlorella sp. Bangladesh J. Fish II(I).

Kibria, G. 1983. Bangladesher Chingri sampad -o- Chingri chas (Shrimp fishery and shrimp culture), Khulna, 126 pp.

Karim, R. 1985. Culture and management system of the shrimp culture demonstration farm. Satkhira (mimeo).

Karim, R. 1986. Brackishwater shrimp culture demonstration in Bangladesh (Report/BOBP/REP/35; Gep/RAS/040/Swe, Madras, India.

Pagcatipunan, R. 1984. Technical Assistance of Oyster and Pearl Culture in Bangladesh. FAO/UNDP fishery Advisory Services Project (BGD/81/034).

Paul, S.C. 1988. Experiment on the stocking density and feed for rearing of wild Penaeus monodon Fabricius. Compilation of reports on the Marine Fisheries Survey and Research, MFRM and Development Project, DOF, Bangladesh, 259–261 pp.

Paul, S.C. 1988. Induced gonad maturation spawning and larval rearing of Penaeus monodon Fabricius. Ibid. 262–264 pp.

Sanaullah, M. and et al. 1988. A survey on the shrimp farms under the Cox's Bazar district. Ibid. 90–93 pp.

Sarker, M.N. and F. Alam. 1984. Culture of blood clam (Anadara spp.) in Bangladesh. Ann. Zool. Conf. 1984. Abst. 16.6.

Sarker, M.N. and F. Alam. 1984. Prospect of Marine bivalve culture in Bangladesh. Ann. Zool. Conf. 1984. abst. 21.8.

Sarker, M.N. 1988. Observation of different methods of edible oyster culture in coastal area at Cox's Bazar and Teknaf. Compilation of reports on the Marine Fisheries Survey and Research, MFRM & Development Project. DOF, Bangladesh. 40–47 pp.

Das, C.N. 1988. Report on seaweeds of the St. Martin's Island Cox's Bazar. Compilation of reports on the Marine Fisheries Survey and Research, MFRM & Dev. Project, DOF, Bangladesh. 313–315 pp.

Annex VIII-2

PROGRESS REPORT ON SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES
IN CHINA

Pan Yi Yan
Chief,
Division of Foreign Economics and Techniques
Bureau of Aquatic Products

It has been over three years since the Regional Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project (RAS/86/024) was established in 1987. In accordance with the recommendations of the Third National Coordinators' Meeting (NCM) and the Tripartite Review (TPR) of the Seafarming Project held in Qingdao, China in August 1989, UNDP approved the RAS/90/002 project after the conclusion of RAS/86/024.

Following is a summary report on the project activities in which China has participated.

1. Participation of training courses and workshops has promoted seafarming development in China.

Since 1988, China has participated in 7 training courses organized by the project, including culture of Eucheuma, oyster, seabass, Gracilaria, abalone and netcage culture of marine finfish, application of geographical information systems in aquaculture, and three workshops including mollusc sanitation and marketing, seaweed production and utilization and fish health management. By attending these courses and workshops, China has learned and exchanged a lot of information and experience with other countries in the Asia-Pacific region, such as the culture techniques of important seafarming species in the region, the existing problems and the trend of development in the future. Most participants can apply the technologies that they have learned from the courses into the practice of research skills and production techniques when they return from the courses. This, to a certain extent, has promoted the seafarming development in the country. Some of the participants said that the training had been effective in upgrading their practical abilities and theoretical knowledge. They hope that there will be more opportunities for them to participate in similar project activities.

Seafarming development in China can not be separated from the international exchange and co-operation. In 1989, the seafarming area in China amounted to over 423,200 hectares with a production of more than 1,575,639 tonnes. The figures of 1990 are likely to be higher than the previous year.

2. Implementation of Project RAS/90/002 in China in 1990.

Since the start of the second phase of the Seafarming Project (RAS/90/002) in 1989, China has actively participated in all its activities The important ones are listed below.

1. February 1990, Mr. Chen Foo Yan came to China to discuss with the Bureau of Aquatic Products (BAP) and the national project coordinator Mr. Yang Cong Hai on the fish health management study and workshop, to make preparations for the workshop which was held in Pusan, Korea (Rep.) in October 1990.

2. For the country visit in connection with the programme on fish health management, the five-member study group headed by Mr. Chen Foo Yan visited several institutes and facilities in China, mainly in Beijing, Qingdao, Shanghai and Wuxi, in order to assess the status of fish health management. The Chinese party gave full assistance to the mission.

3. Accomplishing the survey forms on fish health management and related materials.

4. Presentation of materials and statistical data on the status of seafarming in China.

5. Conduct of the Training Courses on Gracilaria and Seaweed Processing Techniques in Zhanjiang, China, from August 16 to September 4, 1990. Nineteen participants from 9 countries participated in the course.

6. Participation in the: i) Training Course on Artificial Breeding and Culture of Abalone held in Kosong, Korea DPR, ii) Regional Workshop on Seaweed Production and Utilization held in the Philippines and, iii) Workshop on Fish Health Management held in Pusan, Korea (Rep).

3. Plans of China to implement project RAS/90/002 in 1991.

China will continue to cooperate with other countries and international organizations in conducting activities of the seafarming project in 1991, making contributions to the seafarming development in the Asia-Pacific region. The plans are listed below.

1. In May 1991, holding the Training Course on Artificial Breeding and Culture of Sea Cucumber and Bay Scallop (Draft budget 56,500 US$).

2. To participate in the regional activities in seaweed production and utilization, including cooperative research and development.

3. To participate in the activities in fish health management and mollusc sanitation and marketing.

4. To offer technical assistance, in line with the activities under the project RAS/90/002, to the countries or sub-regions which need such assistance from China in seafarming, especially seaweed culture.

4. Recommendations

China recommends the following activities to be discussed on this meeting and the tripartite review meeting and hope that they could be carried out in 1992. China wishes to carry out or participate in such activities.

1. Joint research between scientists from countries interested in Eucheuma culture (e.g. Philippine, Indonesia and China), particularly on the prevention of fish grazing, selection of highyielding strains, and utilization of carrageenan.

2. Joint research by scientists from countries interested in Gracilaria culture (such as China, Thailand and Indonesia) on polyculture of Gracilaria with shrimp or fishes.

3. Training of young scientists (1 or 2 from China) on cultivation techniques and comprehensive utilization of Dunaliella. To invite experts to China and other countries to advise on cultivation and utilization of Dunaliella.

4. To send Chinese experts to USA and Europe to learn more about cultivation and utilization of Spirulina. To invite experts to China to advise on cultivation and utilization of Spirulina.

5. To set up an information centre on economic seaweeds in the Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica. The Institute has a phycological herbarium of about 60,000 specimens and numerous specialists in different seaweed groups found in China and Southeastern Pacific region, such as Sargassum, Porphyra and Gracilaria. The Institute will also provide the necessary equipment and personnel to the centre.

Annex VIII-3

PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ACTIVITIES IN HONG KONG

Wong Pat Shun
Senior Fisheries Officer
Department of Agriculture and Fisheries

I. INTRODUCTION

Hong Kong is situated at the Pearl River estuary in the southern coast of China between latitude 22°09' and 23°37' north and longitude 113°52' and 114°30' east. The land mass has an area of 1074 km² with no rivers or natural inland water bodies suitable for fisheries. The territorial waters are limited with an area of about 1670 km². There are more than 230 islands and islets within the territory giving a total coastline of about 800 km.

Fisheries in Hong Kong is the most important primary industry and its economic role as a source of food is self evident in a country short of land. In 1989, for a population of 5.8 million, the total fish consumption amounted to 223,982 tonnes, equivalent to an average of 38.9 kg/person/year.

The Hong Kong fishery industry comprises three production sectors: marine capture, freshwater pond fish culture and seafarming. The relative importance of each sector from 1980 to 1989 are shown in Table 1. About 96% of local production comes from marine capture, while seafarming contributed roughly 1.3% of the total production by weight but 7.8% of the total value.

II. SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES IN HONG KONG

Seafarming activities in Hong Kong include oyster and marine finfish culture.

2.1 Oyster culture

Oyster culture has been practiced in Hong Kong for at least 200 years. The Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) has always been cultured on the intertidal mudflats in the northwest corner of Hong Kong by the traditional bottom culture method. Historically the industry produced fresh oyster meats mainly for processing to dried oyster or oyster sauce for export. This was changed in the 1960s with the increased demand for fresh oyster meat.

In recent decades, oyster production from spat has decreased gradually owing to difficulties in collecting sufficient spat and the long growth period (4–5 years) to attain marketable size. This has been attributed to the increasing pollution of the water body and the deterioration of the oyster bed condition arising from land-based activities in the vicinity. To supplement local oyster production, the practice of fattening young oysters purchased from China has become increasingly common, and at present it dominates the industry. Total oyster culture area is around 640 ha. In 1989, the production of oyster meat was 137 tonnes valued at HK$ 5 million (US$ 0.64 million).

Table 1. Annual fishery production from various fishery sub-sectors in Hong Kong, 1980–1989. (HK$= ×10⁶).

2.2 Marine finfish culture

Marine finfish culture, on the other hand, only came into existence in the late sixties, when aged and retiring fishermen first started the practice by keeping captured young fish in underwater cages. As live marine fish were selling at high price and were highly demanded, more fishermen and entrepreneurs began to invest into larger scale operations.

In the 1970s, marine fish cage culture developed in a largely unrestrained manner and mariculture proliferated in 54 areas, covering almost every sheltered bay of the territory, creating aesthetic problems as well as conflicting usage of some water bodies. In view of this, the government enacted the Marine Fish Culture Ordinance in 1980 requiring all mariculture operations to be practiced under licenses within designated fish culture zones. Currently there are some 1750 licensed operators with a total raft area of 49.5 ha in 27 fish culture zones, occupying a total area of 179 hectares. In 1989 production from this activity was 3020 tonnes valued at HK$ 182 million (US$ 23.3 million).

The culture system involves growing prime species of grouper, seabream, snapper and seabass (Table 2) from fry or fingerlings to the marketable size in net cages suspended by means of floating wooden rafts in the sea.

Table 2. Common mariculture species in Hong Kong.

The simple wooden frames with plastic containers as floats, used to suspend the netcages, cannot withstand very strong waves or currents. In Hong Kong, the frequent stormy condition associated with the occasional typhoon in the summer and the northeast monsoon throughout the winter, have restricted marine finfish culture to sheltered areas. In addition, with the busy water traffic, most of the fish culture zones are located in inshore sheltered bays with fairly limited water depth.

Fry of breams are caught from local waters. Red grouper fingerlings are imported from China, while other groupers, snappers or seabass are imported from Thailand, Taiwan and the Philippines. Mixed culture of groupers, seabreams and snappers within one netcage is quite common to encourage better foraging efficiency and ensure better utilization of the cage space. The fish are fed daily with minced fresh fish which normally comprises sardines, anchovies, small mackerel, rabbit fish or pony fish caught by purse seiners or trawlers. Normal food conversion ratio is low ranging from 12:1 to 15:1. Most of the fish species take 18–24 months to attain marketable size.

The majority of the mariculture farms are small-capital operations and are operated by family members. An average farm occupies a raft area of 250 m². About 70–80% of the raft area is equipped with cages of 3×3×2–3 m (depth) in dimensions. All the farms are intensively managed with high stocking density. The yield per ha of raft area in 1989 amounted to 61 MT. There are about 40 company-run farms. These farms with usually a raft area of over 1000 m², employ the same method of culture, and are better managed.

III. PROGRESS OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ON SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES

The government's policy towards the various sectors of the fishery industry is directed at enhancing productivity. For seafarming, the emphases are on improvement of husbandry and management skill and development of better culture techniques. In implementing this policy, the Agriculture and Fisheries Department (AFD) undertakes applied and adaptive research, introduces and modifies equipment to suit local application and gives technical and financial advice.

3.1 Oyster culture

The traditional bottom culture method has restricted oyster culture activity to the mud flats in Deep Bay, the conditions of which have deteriorated over the years with land development around it. In the mid seventies, culture trials conducted by AFD showed that raft culture method reduces the effects of pollution and provides better utilization of the water column with higher yields. The raft culture method was introduced to the oyster farmers in the early eighties. This technique, however, was only adopted by a few farmers owing to the additional capital requirement involved in raft construction and transportation to the marketing centre.

Currently, with the various land developments around Deep Bay and the Port and Airport Development Scheme around north Lantau affecting and taking up most of the western waters suitable for oyster culture, further development of this industry is very limited. The idea of finding alternative mollusc species to be cultured within the marine finfish culture farms is being considered.

3.2 Marine finfish culture

AFD's research and management work on marine finfish culture concentrates on three areas:

1. Minimising impacts on the environment
2. Minimising self-pollution effects
3. Fish disease problems

3.2.1 Minimising impacts on the environment

Fish culture zones in sheltered bays with limited flushing are prone to encounter red tide outbreaks or oxygen depletion. In response to this, the Agriculture and Fisheries Department set up a red tide reporting network to monitor their occurrence and provide warning to the fish farmers to take precautionary measure whenever a red tide is found in waters near the culture areas. Efforts have been made to teach fish farmers to use an oxygen meter to monitor the oxygen level of the water in the netcages and to set up an efficient aeration system.

3.2.2 Minimising self-pollution effects

In recent years there has been a strong public concern on pollution effects of seafarming activity on the environment. It has been identified that the pollution load comes mainly from fish faeces, unconsumed feed, washed off foulers and rubbish from domestic dwellers on the rafts.

The pollution impact from fish excretory material can be easily dissipated if there is good flushing within the fish culture zone. Review of conditions in existing fish culture zones is being carried out. Consideration is given to relocate fish culture zones in environmentally unacceptable areas and to expand some to space out the raft density so as to improve flushing within the fish culture zone. The culture trial with new raft structure to enable fish farming in more exposed condition will help alleviate this problem.

A study on the use of various binders to reduce leachate from minced trash fish and increase foraging efficiency is in progress. This aims to reduce the amount of feed loss to the environment. A system to keep detritus feeders like crabs in trays underneath the net cage to utilise some of the unconsumed feed is also being tried out.

As for pollution due to washed-off foulers, the use of lobsters as a natural means of reducing biofouling has been proved to be very effective. This information has been disseminated to the fish farmers. In addition, fish farmers are advised to clean the nets more often to avoid heavy build-up of foulers. The possibility of setting up net cleaning sites with proper waste disposal system on land is also being pursued.

Over the years, with the development of marine finfish culture, some fish farmers who were initially fishermen living on fishing boats turned to live-in structures on fish rafts as they did not have accommodation on land. Under the Marine Fish Culture Ordinance, structures up to a certain size are permitted for storage and watch-keeping purposes. Dwelling on fish rafts not only increases the pollution load on the fish culture zone but poses danger to life and creates aesthetic problem to the country environment which attracts adverse public criticism. Recently with the assistance of the Housing Department to provide housing arrangement for those who have no alternative accommodation on land, the Department took up strict enforcement action against dwelling structures on fish rafts. Fish farmers who do not heed the Department's warning are prosecuted and fined and, for repeated offenders, their fish culture license may be canceled or not renewed.

3.2.3 Fish disease problems

Fish disease outbreaks are frequent in some fish culture zones at certain time of the year. AFD provides diagnostic services for cultured fish. To date the service is limited to parasitic and bacterial diseases. Upon learning of a fish disease outbreak, the department staff conducts an investigation and provides advice to the fish farmers.

Investigations conducted by AFD revealed that trichodiniasis and vibriosis are the most commonly occurring infectious diseases. There is indication that disease outbreaks are related to some extent to poor husbandry practices (e.g. overstocking, rough handling of fish stocks, malnutrition, etc.), environmental stress and stocking of newly imported fry/fingerlings.

To combat the problem of fish disease, AFD places emphasis on prevention rather than treatment. Training and education of fish farmers on proper husbandry techniques are provided through seminars, radio programmes or leaflets. AFD has also undertaken field trials to verify the relationship of growth and stocking density. Studies to find suitable formulation for the major cultured species and feed supplements to be used with trash fish are underway to solve the malnutrition problem. Simple fish sanitization methods have been studied and tried. The method of on-farm treatment of fish in canvas bags is being introduced to fish farmers.

IV. CONCLUSION

Marine finfish culture is the major seafarming activity in Hong Kong. Its future development is limited by the method of culture, diseases, and pollution both from external sources, the seafarming operation itself, and from diseases. Research and development work at AFD are therefore directed towards improvement of husbandry and management techniques and development of new farming systems. Strict enforcement of the Marine Fish Culture Ordinance will prevent bad practices and help improve the environmental condition within fish culture zones.

Annex VIII-4

PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES IN INDIA DURING 1989–90

P.S.B.R. James
Director
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute

The important seafarming activities in India includes hatchery production and rearing of crustaceans, molluscs, seaweeds, holothurians and sea ranching of shrimp and pearl oyster.

I. CRUSTACEANS

The farming of crustaceans is centered mainly around the rearing of commercially important shrimps. The technology for the hatchery production and rearing of important species of penaeid prawns namely Penaeus monodon, P. indicus, P. semisulcatus and Metapenaeus dobsoni have been perfected and great interest has been generated among the private entrepreneurs along the coastal belt to take up farming of shrimps. The production through farming alone has greatly increased during the recent past and in 1989 an estimated 39,976 MT of shrimps were produced from the coastal brackishwater areas. The area under production has also increased to 60,135 ha in 1989. During 1988, the shrimp production in the brackishwater areas was 33,330 MT and the area under cultivation, 58,376 ha. Seeds of P. semisulcatus were released into the salt water lagoon at Mandapam (southeast coast) under the sea ranching programme.

Though technologies for the rearing of other crustaceans like crabs and lobsters are available, their farming has not picked up unlike in the case of shrimps. The reasons may be due to the high mortality encountered in the initial stages of development. Further research on these aspects may be taken up to perfect the technology.

II. MOLLUSCS

The hatchery production of seeds of the pearl oysters, Pinctada fucata, P. margaritifera, the edible oyster Crassostrea madrasensis, clams like Anadara granosa, Paphia malabarica and Meretrix casta and the mussel Perna viridis has been perfected. Sea ranching of some of the molluscs was also carried out. Seeds of M. casta produced in the laboratory at Madras were ranched in the salt water lagoon near Madras and seeds of P. malabarica produced in the Tuticorin hatchery were ranched in the Ashtamudi Lake. Seeds of P. fucata were ranched into the pearl oyster beds off Tuticorin in an attempt to replenish the natural stocks.

The Institute has been successful in inducing the top shell, Trochus radiatus, to spawn under laboratory conditions and the larvae were fed with Isochrysis sp. and soft algal filaments. Based on this work, steps are being taken at Andaman for breeding and seed production of Trochus niloticus.

Rearing of bivalve seed is mostly done in protected coastal areas. Presently, the production of bivalves is mostly through capture but as a positive step toward better health management of these bivalves considerable attention is being given to the monitoring of pollution in the coastal water bodies. Assessment of heavy metals such as mercury, copper, iron, zinc and cadmium and concentration of these metals in respect of seasonalities, species, size and sex-wise variations have been studied. Studies ont he shellfish biotoxins have been carried out. The common places of occurrence, periodicity of occurrence and the details of toxic organisms have been investigated. Bacteriological investigations have been monitored along the coastal waters and it was observed that except during the monsoon season, the total coliform and faecal coliforms were well below the permissible limits.

However, the main constraint in the development of molluscan production in India is pollution which is increasing with industrialisation and urbanisation. A suitable policy has to be evolved for enforcing sanitary regulations and creating greater awareness among the public.

III. SEAWEEDS

Seaweed culture was being carried out on coir rope nets along the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu. This year culture of Gracilaria edulis has been initiated at Minicoy Island (Lakshadweep). Seed material was transported from the mainland to the island and grown on coir rope nets. The growth has been good and a four fold increase in wet weight has been noticed in a span of 70 days. Seed material of Gracilaria edulis and Acanthophora spicifera was also cultured on coir nets. The growth was good but it was retarded by the epiphytic growth of Bryopsis pinnata on the culture nets and grazing of the cultured seaweeds by fishes and crabs. Culture of G. edulis was also carried out in tanks containing seawater.

The Institute is providing short term training programmes to the interested entrepreneurs in the aspects of utilisation and cultivation of seaweeds.

IV. HOLOTHURIANS

The holothurians which are presently exploited and exported include Holothuria scabra, H. spinifera and Bohadchia marmorata. These are exploited from the natural stock and commercial farming of these species has not yet been initiated in India. However, the Institute has been successful in induced breeding Holothuria scabra and rearing the larvae up to the tentactula stage. Because of its great demand as an export product, farming and sea ranching of the species will be intensified in future.

V. LIST OF RESEARCH PAPERS ON SEAFARMING

1985

Bensam, P. 1985. Some engineering problems in the construction and maintenance of marine culture ponds at Mandapam. India J. fish., 32(4): 417– 430.

Boyd, C.E. and V.K. Pillai. 1985. Water quality management in aquaculture. CMFRI Spl. Publn., 22: 1–96.

James, P.S.B.R., V. Gandhi, G. Mohanraj, A. Raju and V.S. Rengaswamy. 1985. Monoculture of grey mullets in coastal salts water ponds at Mandapam, Indian J. Fish., 32(2): 174–184.

Kuthalingam, M.D.K. 1985. Inland aquaculture development and its prospects in India. Seafood Export Journal, 17(8): 5–14.

Mahadevan, S. 1985. Finfish culture. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T & E. Ser., 62: 1–6.

Unnithan, K. Asokakumaran. 1985. Prawn farming in Kerala. CMFRI Spl. Publn., 21: 1–92.

1986

Alagarswami, K. 1986. An overview of mollusc mariculture in India. In: Biology of Benthic Marine Organisms. Thompson et al. (Eds.) Oxford & IBH, pp. 415–424.

Chennubhotla, V.S.K., S. Kalimuthu and M. Selvaraj. 1986. Seaweed culture -its feasibility and industrial utilization. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture, 4: 1206–1209.

Gopinathan, C.P. 1986. Differential growth rates of micro-algae in some culture media. Indian J. Fish., 33(4): 450–456.

Hochachka, P.W. 1986. A practical manual for studies of environmental physiology and biochemistry of culturable marine organisms. CMFRI Spl. Pub. No. 25.

Jacob, T. 1986. Statistical design of aquaculture experiments. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture, 4: 1152–1159.

James, P.S.B.R. 1986. Present status and future scope for fish production in cages and enclosures in India. Indian Jour. Anim. Sci., 56(3): 453–458.

James, P.S.B.R. 1986. Fin-fish culture. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture, 4: 1450–1455.

James, P.S.B.R., V.S.K. Chennubhotla and J.X. Rodrigo. 1986. Studies on the fauna associated with the cultured seaweed Gracilaria edulis. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture, 4: 1193–1198.

Lazarus, S. and K. Nandakumaran. 1986. Experiments on the culture of Penaeus indicus in polythene film lined ponds at Calicut. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T & E Ser., 70: 16–17.

Marichamy, R. and J. Motha. 1986. Prospects of prawn culture in salt pan areas. Mar. Fish. Infor. serv. T & E Ser., 70: 1–7.

Marichamy, R., M. Manickaraja and S. Rajapackiam. 1986. Culture of the mud crab Scylla serrata (Forskal) in Tuticorin Bay. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture, 4: 1176–1182.

Muthu, M.S. and A. Laxminarayana. 1986. A simple biological filter for recirculating seawater systems. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture, 4: 1107– 1109.

Muthu, M.S., A. Laxminarayana and K.H. Mohamad. 1986. Induced maturation and spawning of Penaeus indicus without eyestalk ablation. Indian J. Fish., 33(2): 246–250.

Radhakrishnan, P. 1986. Preparation of prawn culture field (Malayalam). Indian J. Fish., 33(2): 246–250.

Tholasilingam, T. and K. Rengarajan. 1986. Prospects on spiny lobster Panulirus spp. culture in the east coast of India. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture, 4: 1171–1175.

1987

Alagarswami, K. 1987. Perspectives in pearl culture. In: Contributions in Marine Sciences. pp. 37–49.

Alagarswami, K. 1987. Technology of cultured pearl production. CMFRI Bulletin, 39: 98–106.

Alagarswami, K. 1987. Cultured pearls - production and quality. Ibid., 39: 107–111.

Alagarswami, K. 1987. Training programme in pearl culture. Ibid. 39: 112– 115.

Alagarswami, K., S. Dharmaraj, T.S. Velayudhan and A. Chellam. 1987. Hatchery technology for pearl oyster production. CMFRI Bulletin, 39: 62–72.

Appukuttan, K.K. 1987. Pearl oyster culture in Vizhinjam Bay. Ibid, 39: 54– 61.

Chellam, A., S. Dharmaraj and A.C.C. Victor. 1987. Experimental sea-ranching of pearl oyster in the Gulf of Manner. Ibid, 39: 90–91.

Chellam, A., T.S. Velayudhan and A.C.C. Victor. 1987. Pearl Oyster Farming, Ibid, 39: 72–77.

Chennubhotla, V.S.K., N. Kaliaperumal, S. Kalimuthu, J.R. Ramalingam, M. Selvaraj and M. Najmuddin. 1987. Seaweed culture. CMFRI Bulletin, 41: 60– 77.

Gilbert, J. and V.K. Pillai. 1987. Lime requirement of pond soils for aquaculture around Cochin backwaters. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T & E Ser., 71: 18–20.

James, P.S.B.R. 1987. Overview of oyster culture: Present status and prospects. CMFRI Bulletin, 38: 75–78.

James, P.S.B.R. 1987. Problems and prospects of pearl culture in India. Ibid, 39: 120–122.

James, P.S.B.R. and R. Marichamy. 1987. Status of seabass (Lates calcarifer) culture in India. Proc. of Workshop on management of wild and cultured sea bass/barramoundi (Lates calcarifer) Australia, ACIAR, No. 20: 74–79.

Kathirvel, M., V. Selvaraj, S. Palanichamy and A. Ramakrishnan. 1987. The induced maturation and larval rearing of the King prawn Penaeus latisulcatus Kishinonye under controlled conditions. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T & E Ser., 76.

Marichamy, R. 1987. Prawn culture in salt pan areas. CMFRI R & D Series No. 17.

Marichamy, R. 1987. Culture of fin fishes along the coast of Tamil Nadu. Mar. Fish. Infor. Ser. T & E Ser., 75: 5–11.

Muthiah, P. 1987. Techniques of collection of oyster-spat for farming. CMFRI Bulletin, 38: 48–51.

Muthu, M.S., N.N. Pillai, K.V. George and S. Lekshmi. 1987. Growth of the Indian white prawn Penaeus indicus in relation to stocking density. J. mar. biol. Ass. India, 23 (1&2): 205–208.

Nayar, K.N. 1987. Technology of oyster farming. CMFRI Bulletin, 38: 59–62.

Nayar, K.N., K.S. Rao, M.E. Rajapandian, C.P. Gopinathan and A.D. Gandhi. 1987. Production of oyster seed in a hatchery system. Ibid., 38: 52–58.

Nayar, K.N., S. Mahadevan and P. Muthiah. 1987. Economics of oyster culture. Ibid, 38: 67–70.

Radhakrishnan, P. 1987. Site selection for prawn farming (Malayalam) Kerala Karshakan, June 1987. Farm Information Bureau, Govt. of Kerala.

Radhakrishnan, P. 1987. Integrated farming. A project profile. Krishi Vigyan Patrika, Mariculture series 8.

Rao, P.V. 1987. Penaeid prawn culture at Vallapu Village near Cochin - An experience. Proc. Symp. on Management of coastal systems and oceanic resources of the Andamans, 17–18 July 1987: 88–91.

Sathiadhas, R., K.K.P, Panikkar, T. Jacob and U.K. Satyavan. 1987. Economics of paddy-cum-prawn culture in Kerala. CMFRI R&D Series No. 14.

Silas, E.G., M.S. Muthu, N.N. Pillai and K.V. George. 1987. Breeding of the marine prawn Metapenaeus dobsoni in brackishwater ponds. J. mar. biol. Ass. India. 24(1&2): 147–149.

Thomas, M.M. and K.A.K. Unnithan. 1987. Scientific prawn farming (Malayalam) Kerala Karshakan, April 1987. Farm Information Bureau, government of Kerala.

Victor, A.C.C., A. Chellam and S. Dharmaraj. 1987. Pearl oyster spat collection. CMFRI Bulletin, 39: 49–53.

1988

Achary, G.P.K. 1988. Induced breeding and early development of Villorita cyprinoides var. cochinensis with comments on hatchery system. CMFRI Bulletin, 42(2): 344–348.

Alagarswami, K. 1988. Culture techniques and production rates of molluscs in India. CMFRI Bulletin, 42(2): 239–246.

Appukuttan, K.K., Mathew Joseph and K.T. Thomas. 1988. Larval rearing and spat production of the brown mussel Perna indica at Vizhinjam. CMFRI Bulletin, 42(2): 337–343.

Appukuttan, K.K., T. Prabhakaran Nair, Mathew Joseph and K.T. Thomas. 1988. Brown mussel (Perna indica) resources on the southwest coast of India and the results of farming experiments at Vizhinjam. Ibid., 42(2): 257–263.

Ganchi, V. and G. Mohanraj. 1988. Results of experimental monoculture of milkfish in marine fishfarm at Mandapam. J. mar. biol. Ass. India, 28(1&2): 63–73.

Geetha Bharathan. 1988. Experimental culture of Gracilaria at the mariculture centre, Muthukadu, Tamil Nadu. Ibid., 29(1&2): 54–59.

James, D.B. 1988. Successful induced spawning and rearing of the Holothurian Holothuria (Metriatla) scabra Jaeger at Tuticorin. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T & E Ser., 87: 30–31.

James, D.B. 1988d. Problems of beche-de-mer industry in Tamil Nadu and the recent development in breeding of sea cucumber. Paper presented in the Workshop on Research and Development in Marine Fisheries in Tamil Nadu, Madras, September, 13–14.

James, P.S.B.R. 1988. Production constraints for development of sea farming in India. Workshop on Sea Farming at CIFE, Bombay.

James, P.S.B.R. 1988. Advances in Sea farming Technology, Fishing chimes, Vol. 8(6): 19–20.

James, P.S.B.R. 1988. Coastal aquaculture research and development in India. Paper sent for J. Aquatic Biology (Dr. S. Dutt commemoration Volume).

Kathirvel, M. and V. Selvaraj. 1988. On an experimental seed collection and field culture of king prawn, Penaeus latisulcatus, Indian J. Fish., 34(4): 365–373.

Kuriakose, P.S., V.G. Surendranathan and M.P. Sivadasan. 1988. Possibilities of green mussel culture in the southwest coast of India. CMFRI Bulletin, 42(2): 247–256.

Lazarus, S. and K. Nandakumaran. 1988. Studies on the monoculture of milk fish in artificial ponds. J. mar. biol. Ass. India, 28(1&2): 84–95.

Muthu, M.S., K.A. Narasimham, K. Gopalakrishna and A.K. Sharma. 1988. Recent development in the prawn and fish culture in Andhra Pradesh. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T & E Ser., 90: 16–21.

Narasimham, K.A. 1988. Aspects of the blood clam Anadara granosa (Linnaeus) culture in Kakinada Bay. CMFRI Bulletin, 42(2): 313–317.

Nayar, K.N., K. Satyanarayana Rao, M.E. Rajapandian and A.D. Ganchi. 1988. Induced maturation and spawning of Crassostrea madrasensis. Ibid., 42(2): 330–332.

Nayar, K.N., K. Satyanarayana Rao, P. Muthiah and M.E. Rajapandian. 1988. Recent trends in oyster culture in India. Ibid., 42(2): 271–275.

Rajapandian, M.E., K. Satyanarayana Rao, P. Muthiah and D. Sundararajan. 1988. Post harvest techniques and sanitation for oysters. Ibid., 42(2): 394– 397.

Sreenivasan, P.V., K. Satyanarayana Rao, P. Poovannan and R. Thangavelu. 1988. Growth of larvae and spat of the green mussel Perna viridis (Linnaeus) in hatchery. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T & E Ser., 79: 23–26.

Tampi, P.R.S., V. Selvaraj and K.G. Girijavaliabhan. 1988. Open sea mussel farming and its practical aspects. Ibid., 42(2): 267–270.

1989

Diwan, A.D. 1989. Neuroendocrine mechanisms in relation to control of maturation in cultivable teleost fishes. CIBA Spl. Pub., 2: 1–30.

James, D.B. 1989. Beche-de-mer - Its resources, fishery and industry. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T & E Ser., No. 92.

Kaliaperumal, N., S. Kalimuthu and J.R. Ramalingam. 1989. Agar, algin and mannitol from some seaweeds of Lakshadweep. J. mar. bio. Ass. India, 31 (1&2): 303–305.

Kathirvel, M. and V. Selvaraj. 1989. Attainment of maturity in pond-reared kuruma prawn Penaeus japonicus Bate. Ibid., 31(1&2): 110–116.

Sreenivasan, P.V., K. Satyanarayana Rao and P. Poovannan. 1989. Survival of hatchery produced green mussel seed in different salinities. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T & E. Ser., No. 95: 6–7.

Sreenivasan, P.V., R. Thangavelu and P. Poovannan. 1989. Biology of the green mussel, Perna viridis (Linnaeus) cultured in Muttukadu lagoon,, Madras. Indian J. Fish., 36(2): 149–155.

1990

Bensam, P. 1990. On construction and maintenance of marine fish culture ponds along southeast coast of India. CMFRI Bulletin, 44(2): 309–317.

Chennubhotla, V.S.K., N. Kaliaperumal and M.S. Rajagopalan. 1990. Seaweed culture in India - An appraisal. CMFRI Bulletin, 44(2): 394–402.

Chennubhotla, V.S.K., M. Najmuddin, J.R. Ramalingam and N. Kaliaperumal. 1990. Biochemical composition of some marine algae from Mandapam coast, Tamil Nadu. CMFRI Bulletin, 44(2): 442–446.

Kaliaperumal, N., S. Kalimuthu and J.R. Ramalingam. 1990. Biochemical composition of studies on phycocolloid contents from seaweeds of south Tamil Nadu coast. Seaweed Res. utiln., 12(1&2): 115–119.

Nammalwar, P. and G. Mohan Raj. 1990. Present status on induced breeding of marine finfishes in India. CMFRI Bulletin, 44(2): 383–393.

Nammalwar, P. and G. Mohan Raj. 1990. A review of marine finfish culture research in India. Ibid., 44(2): 427–435.

Annex VIII-5

PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA

Kisto Mintardjo
The National Seafarming Development Centre

I. INTRODUCTION

Indonesia is an archipelagic country composed of 13,000 islands with a total coastline of 80,000 km. The country's population is estimated to be 179.3 million (1990). Seafarming has been identified as a possible alternative of declining catch from fishing to replace or augment fishermen's income. The continued existence and revival of these resources may be realized through seafarming.

Fisheries production in Indonesia in 1987 amounted to 2,670,413 tonnes, most of which derived from marine capture fisheries (2,017,350 tonnes). Production from inland capture fisheries and aquaculture amounted to 653,063 tonnes.

The initial abundance of marine coastal resources which could be utilized by simple gathering or capture, has delayed the development of the seafarming industry in Indonesia. However, the resources near urban centres have now declined to a point where other means of production are necessary. In addition, urgent assistance needs to be channeled towards the large Indonesian fishermen population of 1.37 million (1987), most of whom are small-scale coastal fishermen with very depressed economic conditions. Due to conflict in the use of coastal fishery resources, commercial trawling has been banned since 1980. Although this was designed to protect and allow recovery of these resources, it is adversely affecting the livelihood of the coastal fishermen particularly if no alternative source of income is offered. These conditions are stimulating factors towards the promotion and development of seafarming activities.

The long coastline and wide island shelves serve as potential sites for seafarming development. In terms of resources or species available for culture, Indonesia abounds with suitable finfish, molluscs, crustacean and seaweed species which are cultivable and of high economic value.

II. CURRENT STATUS OF SEAFARMING

2.1 Seaweed

Seaweeds are utilized by the Indonesians as food (salad, vegetable and soup thickening) as well as for medical treatments. There are many kind of seaweeds grown in Indonesia, but only three have high economic value: Gracilaria and Gellidium for agar, and Eucheuma for carrageenans.

The culture of Eucheuma and Gracilaria has been developed in Indonesia, but the production of Gellidium is still dependent from the wild. Seaweed culture in Indonesia can easily be further expanded, due to the potential areas available, and as a result of the simple culture and post-harvest techniques used and low investments required.

There are two species of seaweeds commonly cultured in 12 Indonesian provinces: Eucheuma cottonii and Gracilaria sp. A total of 22,600 ha have been identified as potential areas suitable for seaweed culture and 17,700 ha specifically suitable for Eucheuma culture (Tiensongrusmee et al., 1987).

2.2 Finfish

The potential marine fish species in Indonesian coastal waters that are suitable for culture in floating netcages include 17 species belonging to five families. These are species of groupers (Epinephelidae), snapper (Lutjanidae), seabass (Latidae), carangids (Carangidae) and rabbitfishes (Siganidae). The existing areas of finfish culture are Seribu Island (DKI Jakarta); Natuna, Batam, Riau Archipelago (Riau Province); Karimunjawa (Central Java Province); Selayar (South Sulawesi Province); Sangihe and Talaud (North Sulawesi Province); Bangka Island (South Sumatra Province) and Lampung Bay (Lampung Province).

2.3 Shellfish

Indonesia has about 5.8×10⁶ km² of marine coastal waters which are abundantly populated with shellfish of economic importance. In 1987, the total shellfish production was 50,686 tonnes. Shellfish of economic importance and with a high potential for seafarming development include the green mussel (Perna viridis), pearl oysters (Pinctada maxima, P. margaritifera, P. fucuta, and Pteria penguin), edible oysters (Crassostrea cuculata, C. lugubris, C. rivularis, C. iredalei), and the blood cockle (Anadara granosa).

2.4 Sea cucumber

Most of the exported dried sea cucumber are traditionally processed. The major markets in Southeast Asia are Hong Kong and Singapore. In these countries the imported sea cucumber from Indonesia are re-processed and reexported to other countries.

In 1986 Indonesia exported 2,472 tonnes of dried sea cucumber to Hong Kong for a total value of HK$ 34,157,909 and increase to 2,713.3 tonnes and HK$ 37,281,617 in 1987. Similarly, the export of Indonesian sea cucumbers to Singapore, has been increasing from year to year.

There are 23 species of sea cucumber found in Indonesian waters, but only 5 of these are considered commercially important and belong to the Aspidochorita and Dentrochirota. These species are:

1. Black sea cucumber (Holothuria nobilis);
2. Black sea cucumber (H. vagabunda);
3. Red sea cucumber (H. vatiensis);
4. Brown sea cucumber (H. marmorata); and
5. (v) Sand sea cucumber (H. scabra)

At present the culture of sea cucumber is actively pursued in Central Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi and sporadically in certain islands of Maluku and Jakarta Bay.

III. PRODUCTION

During the period 1979–1987, the total fisheries production increased steadily, at approximately 5.85 percent per annum. In 1987, total production was 2,670,413 tonnes. Marine fisheries contributed 75.5 percent or 2.02 million tonnes while aquaculture including seafarming, produced 655,063 tonnes or 24.5 percent of total production. Most of the production shown in Table 1 refers to fish production while Table 2 and 3 summarize seaweed and shellfish production data.

Table 1. Fisheries production by sub sector (MT).

Source: Fishery Statistics of Indonesia 1987

Table 2. Total Production of Seaweed by Species in Indonesia, 1980–1987 (MT).

Source: Fishery Statistics of Indonesia 1987

Table 3. Total Production of Molluscs by Species in Indonesia, 1980–1987 (MT).

Source: Fishery Statistics of Indonesia 1987

IV. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

To enable seafarming development activities to take off, the Government of Indonesia has invested in the National Seafarming Development Centre established at Desa Hurun near Teluk Hurun in the southern part of Lampung Province. The Centre conducts culture trials, provides back stopping to outpost sub-centres, and support to technical staff.

Three sub-centres as regional units have been established in order to support the development objectives and functions of the National Seafarming Development Centre. The sub-centres are located in Batam (Riau Province) responsible for the area of Sumatera, Java and Kalimantan, Lombok (West Nusa Tenggara Province) responsible for the area of Sulawesi, Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara and East Timor and Ambon (Maluku Province) responsible for the area of Maluku and Irian Jaya. The sub-centres conduct seafarming culture trials and technical assistance to farmers at the regional level.

To make the existing seafarming research and development coordination mechanisms effective, close collaboration has been established with other agencies and developmental projects such as the Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (AARD), the Research and Development Centre for Oceanology, the Indonesian Institute of Science (LON-LIPI), the Support to National Fisheries Development Centres Project (INS/85/009), the Regional Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project (INS/86/024), and the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and Pacific.

The priority research and development activities for commercially economic seafarming species are the following:

1. Finfishes

   Hatchery propagation and netcage culture of grouper and snapper species.

2. Molluscs

   Hatchery propagation of pearl oysters, sanitary control and depuration of cultured shellfish.

3. Seaweeds

   To develop seedling stock of Eucheuma and Gracilaria species by using generative propagation and tissue culture.

4. Sea cucumber

   Hatchery propagation of edible and economic sea cucumber species.

V. PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS

There are a number of problems and constraints that are hampering the growth of seafarming in Indonesia. The problem areas involve the following:

5.1 Technology

Technology is inadequate in terms of seed production of the cultivable species either from the wild or by controlled propagation in hatcheries except perhaps that of the seabass (Lates calcarifer). The existing stocks for cultivation such as for seaweeds have shown signs of deterioration yet technology is not available to revive the vigor of cultured stocks. There is a need to disperse and develop technologies through extension and training, while required technologies should be obtained through cooperative research efforts among the countries in the region.

5.2 Seed supply

Propagation under controlled conditions for mass culture of fry has not been achieved for grouper and snapper. Collection from the wild is still the source of stock for these species. In the case of wild sources of fry or even juveniles to be used for culture there is limited knowledge on the natural occurrence and seasonal abundance of the culture species. Continuing research on the hatchery propagation of cultured marine finfish should be pursued. Likewise, the declining quality of seeding stocks of Eucheuma seaweed used in culture should be investigated so that stocks with vigor can be utilized for this industry.

All cultured marine molluscs in Indonesia are derived by seeding from natural waters. The seed gathering process under this system usually gives very variable and uncertain result so that the aquaculturist cannot plan his operation ahead of time. In order to cater to future growth and development of mollusc culture as a stable seafarming industry, hatchery propagation of the cultured species should be conducted, initially with research and subsequently as a commercial undertaking.

5.3 Market

Development of seafarming for a specific resource is dictated by the market. There are many sites which are suitable for the culture of certain resource but such areas may be so remote that the product cannot be profitably marketed. In some cases there are no market facilities for these commodities.

5.4 Infrastructure facilities

Related to market and marketing of marine products is the need for infrastructure facilities. The absence of roads, marketing centres, navigation routes, iceplants, cold storage and fish landing sites in the areas where these are needed, is delaying or even preventing the growth of the seafarming industry.

5.5 Quality control

Seafarming products need to be of good quality for consumption as well as for a better price. In some cases, however, especially for shellfish, the sanitary condition of the product is affected by the conditions of the culture site itself. Shellfish from sewage-polluted areas are dangerous to eat and cause health hazards. If the products are for foreign markets very strict sanitary control should be applied, particularly as rejections, due to inferior quality, can easily ruin an export market. In this instance, local processing facilities including depuration plants for shellfish need to be made available.

5.6 Financing

In order to increase the income of seafarmers, so that their level of existence can be raised above poverty line, financing through facilitated credit terms should be made available. This will enable and motivate the farmers to improve their culture technologies to further enhance production outputs. However, such credits are seldom available, so that loans from various sources at high interest rates become the only form of financing.

VI. REVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF THE TRAINING AND WORKSHOP BEING ORGANIZED BY RAS/90/002 (RAS/86/024)

Since the training courses and workshops organized by RAS/90/002 (RAS/86/024), the seafarming industry in Indonesia, which is still in its initial stage of development, has received considerable positive inputs. As a result, the National Seafarming Development Centre in Lampung and the staff trained by the Seafarming Project, are organizing national training courses in the acquired seafarming technologies. The list of the training courses that have been organized are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. List of training courses organized by the NSDC, Lampung.

The status of seafarming objectives and outputs in Indonesia are as follows:

1.   Seaweed Culture

The expansion of seaweed culture in Indonesia is the result of the various training courses conducted by the National Seafarming Development Centre. So far 90 participants have been trained to promote seaweed culture in their respective localities. Recently the Government decided that seaweed culture is an activity that may help overcome poverty and unemployment along the coastal zones in 19 provinces. It is believed that this programme can raise the income of fishermen as well as the national seaweed production.

2.   Oyster Culture

The National Seafarming Development Centre has been assisting a private company (PT. Nelayan Bhakti) to develop an appropriate technique for oyster culture in 10 of its sub-stations in the eastern part of the country.

3.   Culture of Seabass (Lates calcarifer)

In the Riau Archipelago area seabass culture has expanded by using floating netcages. With the success of induced spawning of seabass (Lates calcarifer) at National Seafarming Development Centre, it is expected that the problem of fry supply will be overcome. To promote artificial seabass fry production, the Centre has conducted several training courses to private firms and government officials. In several areas of Java and Lampung, seabass culture is being developed in brackishwater pond.

4.   Marine finfish netcage culture

Especially in the Riau Archipelago, marine finfish netcage culture (grouper and siganid) has been developing since the early 80's, by the use of floating netcages. The operations were initially based on technology and methods developed by Singaporean marine finfish growers. Most of the fishermen have a good background in finfish netcage culture, presumably inherited from their ancestors who brought it with them from mainland China. In other areas of the country there are some ongoing activities in marine finfish culture, promoted by 129 trainers who attended the training course conducted by the National Seafarming Development Centre.

5.   Gracilaria Culture and Seaweed Processing

Gracilaria culture has developed in brackishwater ponds in South Sulawesi and East Java to supplement the raw materials for the agar industry. Some of the agar processing firms in Indonesia include PT. Satelit Sriti and PT. Agarindo Bogatama.

6.   Training Course on Geographical Information System: Application in Aquaculture

The initial phase of joint cooperation between The National Seafarming Development Centre and the Indonesian National Institute of Aeronautic and Space (LAPAN) was made through the FAO/UNDP Seafarming Development Project INS/81/008 for the use of remote sensing in site selection for seafarming activities in Indonesia. The joint cooperation has mapped 6 potential locations for seafarming development.

7.   Workshop and study tour on mollusc sanitation and marketing

Efforts are ongoing to improve the quality of molluscs for safe human consumption by introducing and developing a commercially viable depuration technology. The national sanitation programme would ultimately promote molluscs consumption in Indonesia. The molluscs marketing strategies are still at an infant stage of development.

8.   Workshop on Fish Health Management in Asia and the Pacific

Arrangements have been made by the Government of Indonesia to conduct a training programme on fish, shrimp and seaweed pest and disease, in January 1991. The National Seafarming Development Centre will hold a training programme on seaweed pest and diseases on January 7–28, 1991. A training course on shrimp pest and diseases will soon be held at the Brackishwater Aquaculture Development Centre, Jepara, while a similar training programme on pest and diseases of fish will be held at the Freshwater Development Centre in Sukabumi.

9.   Regional Workshop on Seaweed Production and Utilization

It is believed that a TCDC programme should be developed in order to support seaweed culture development as an activity to overcome poverty among coastal communities as well as to develop seedling stocks of Eucheuma and Gracilaria through tissue culture and vegetative propagation.

Annex VIII-6

PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES,
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN ROK

Byung-Ha Park
Director
Aquaculture Division, NFRDA

I. PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING RESEARCH ACTIVITIES

1.1 Research activities of NFRDA

The NFRDA (National Fisheries Research and Development Agency) is the governmental fisheries institute that carries out research activities and extension services for fisheries development and income elevation of fishermen. Its major functions are the following.

• Oceanography and environment conservation
• Fisheries resources assessment and management
• Mariculture research
• Freshwater fish culture
• Development of fishing technology
• Utilization technology and quality improvement of marine products

Major seafarming research activities in 1989 were the following:

1.1.1 Artificial seedling production

- Technology development of seedling production

Result in 1989: 11 species (Verasper variegatus, Sebastes inermis, P. olivaceus, Takifugu rubripes, S. schlegeli, Turbo corrutus, Sulculus supertexta, Strongylocentrotus intermedius, Panulirus japonicus). Planned for 1990: 9 species (Sebastes taczanowskii, Lateolabrax japonicus, Epinephelus septemfasciatus, Takifugu rubripes, Verasper variegatus, Sulculus supertexta, Portunus trituberculatus, Panulirus japonicus, Stichopus japonicus).

1.1.2 Research on genetics and selective breeding

Finfish

• Research on the number and type of chromosomes, the nuclei size of red blood cells, and the cells of Sebastes schlegeli, Kareius bicoloratus and Takifugu rubripes.
• Triploid induction of Chrysophrys major and P. olivaceus.

Shellfish

• Triploid induction of Crassostrea gigas, Pinctada fucata and Haliotis spp.

Seaweed

• Research on the inherited character and cell fusion through generation culture, classified by the color of Porphyra spp.

1.1.3 Research on technology of seafarming

Finfish

• Development of filtration facilities for fish culture in closed-system aquariums.
• Cage culture of Paralichthys olivaceus.
• Research on assorted feed for Seriola quinqueradiata and Sebastes schlegeli.

Shellfish

• Research on environmental conditions and culture technology of Meretrix lusoria.

Seaweed

• Research on culture technology of Hizikia fusiforme.
• Diagnoses and treatments of parasitic and microbial diseases of Porphyra spp. and Undaria spp.

Others

• Research on culture technology of Erimacrus isenbeck.
• Improvement of culture technology of Halocyntia roretzi.
• Research on polyculture systems to enhance the productivity of seafarming (Undaria + Halocyntia roretzi, Crassostrea gigas + Halocyntia roretzi, Tapes spp. + Porphyra spp., Haliotis spp. + Laminaria spp.).

1.1.4 Research on marine finfish diseases

• Research on rapid diagnosis of streptococcosis, vibriosis and pseudotuberculosis in yellowtails.
• Research on diagnosis of fish health by serological methods in marine finfish.

1.2 Research activities of fisheries educational institutions

There are three universities, three technical colleges and 11 high schools for fisheries studies in the Republic of Korea.

The universities and colleges periodically publish their own papers on fisheries research.

1.3 Institutes supported by the Government

In the Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute, an attached institute of the Ministry of Science and Technology, a research journal named “Ocean Research” is published biannually.

1.4 Others

The Korean Fisheries Society, Korean Oceanography Society, Korean Society of Fish Pathology, and the Korean Aquaculture Society publish their own research papers (two times) after the session.

II. EVALUATION OF SEAFARMING TRAINING COURSES

2.1 Workshop on mollusc sanitation and marketing

1. Participant:

   One technical official.

2. Name of employer and main tasks (prior to the workshop):

   NFRDA, Research on the sanitation of fish, shellfish and marine products.

3. Name of employer and main tasks (at the present time):

   Same as above.

4. Acquired information from the workshop:

   • Shellfish depuration facilities.

   • Marketing on mollusc.

5. Adaptable technology transferred through the course:

   Shellfish depuration facilities.

6. Technology adaptation through the workshop:

   Introduction of the sanitation and marketing on mollusc through the report.

2.2 Laminaria culture

1. Participants:

   Two technical officials.

2. Name of employer and tasks (prior to the course):

   • NFRDA, research on algae culture.

   • NFRDA, research on oceanography.

3. Name of employer and tasks (at the present time):

   Same as above.

4. Acquired information from the Laminaria training course:

   • Harvesting an processing method of Laminaria.
   • Seedling and grow-out methods of Laminaria.
   • Intermediate culture and transplantation.
   • Polyculture of Laminaria and mollusc.
   • Disease prevention and control.

   • Artificial enhancement of natural Laminaria stocks.

5. Adaptable technology transferred through the training course:

   • Culture of summer seedling.

   • Transplantation of young sporophytes and raft culture method used for grow-out.

6. Technology adaptation through the training course:

   Introduction of the Laminaria culture technology to the fish farmers in ROK.

2.3 Regional workshop on seaweed production and utilization

1. Participant:

   One technical official.

2. Name of employer and main tasks (prior to the workshop):

   NFRDA, research on algae culture.

3. Name of employer and main tasks (at the present time):

   Same as above.

4. Acquired information from the workshop:

   • Identification of good potential for the continued development of seaweed and micro-algae culture in Asia-Pacific region.
   • Identification of needs for the manpower, facilities and improved information flow to support the development of a successful and sustainable industries.

   • Additional centres in the network to collaborate and disseminate seaweed trade and marketing date.

5. Adaptable technology transferred through the workshop:

   • Culture technology of tropical and temperate seaweeds.

   • Processing technology of tropical and temperate seaweeds.

6. Technology adaptation through the workshop:

   Introduction of the seaweed culture and utilization in Asia-Pacific region to the Korea fish farmers and seaweed processing industries.

2.4 Workshop on fish health management in the Asia-Pacific region

1. Participant:

   • 25 technical officials and professors.

   • 3 persons from the private sector.

2. Name of employer and main tasks (prior to the workshop):

   • NFRDA and Fisheries University of Pusan, research on fish pathology and fish culture technology.

   • Owner and manager of private industries.

3. Name of employer and main tasks (at the present time):

   Same as above.

4. Acquired information from the workshop:

   • Status of fish health management in Asia-Pacific region.
   • Needs of establishing national fish health management center.

   • Needs of research on the field of environment, human health, fish disease diagnosis and quarantine systems.

5. Adaptable technology transferred through the workshop:

   • Usage of medicine for aquatic organisms and enactment of law to prevent the spread of fish disease.

   • Standardization of diagnostic methods.

6. Technology adaptation through the workshop:

   Publishing the report on the workshop and its distribution to relevant agencies and industries.

III. 1989 SEAFARMING PRODUCTION STATISTICS

Table 3.1. Number of fishfarmer households and areas under production in the Republic of Korea, 1986–1989.

Table 3.3. Seafarming production of finfish by species in ROK, 1985–1989 (MT).

Table 3.4 Seafarming production of molluscs by species in ROK, 1985–1989 (MT).

Table 3.5. Seafarming production of crustaceans by species in ROK, 1985–1989 (MT).

Table 3.6. Seafarming production of seaweeds by species in ROK, 1985–1989 (MT).

Table 3.6. Seafarming production of miscellaneous species in ROK, 1985–1989 (MT).

IV. LATEST RESEARCH PAPERS ON SEAFARMING IN ROK

4.1 NFRDA

4.1.1 NFRDA Bulletin, No. 43, 1989

1. Yong Soo Son, Young Je Park, Jong Doo Kim and Saeng Dong Lee. Study on the ecology and transplantation of the sea-urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius (Agassiz) in the coast of Kangwondo in Korea, 105–118.

2. Baek Kyun Kim and Hee You. Studies on the seed production and cultivation of the fleshy prawn, Penaeus chinensis (Osbeck, 1765), 119–126.

3. Suck Ki Chung, Sung Kyoo Yoo and Seang Dong Lee. The growth of cultured sea squirt, Halocynthia roretzi (Drasche) at different water depths on the eastern coast of Korea, 127–136.

4. Jung Uie Lee, Song Jueng Son, Seock Jung Han and Byung Goun Kim. Comparison on the early growths of abalones Haliotis discus hannai Ino and H. discus Reeve, 157–164.

5. Jung Uie Lee, Song Jueng Son and Jong Hwan Baek. The optimum stocking density of red seabream, Chrysophrys major fry, 165–172.

6. Seock Jung Han, Jung Uie Lee, Byung Goun Kim and Jong Hwan Baek. A study on the spawning experiment of abalone, Haliotis discus Reeve, reared in a temperature controlled indoor tank, 173–180.

4.1.2 NFRDA Technical Report, No. 78, 1989

1. Nak Yon Kwon and Dae Soo Chang. A wintering experiment of red seabream and yellowtail off Cheju-Do, 87–102.

2. Nak Yon Kwon and Dae Soo Chang. An experiment on the rearing of young black mouth, Opiegnathus fasciathus (Temminck et Schlegel), with moist pellet feed, 102–111.

3. Yong Gun Gong, Moo Ick Son and Jeung Pyo Hong. An experiment on the culture of abalone using the hanging culture method, 133–160.

4. Yong Kyun Chung, Yong Chul Cho and Hong In Song. Studies on the morphological characteristics of cultured Undaria pinnatifida, 161–179.

5. Yong Ktun Chung, Soo Keun Cho and Gil Joo Kim. Studies on the control of Licmophora abbreviata on laver leaves, 180–195.

4.2 Korean Fisheries Society

4.2.1 Bulletin of the Korean Fisheries Society, Vol. 23, No. 1, 1990

1. Joong Kyun Jeon. Tetramine contents of Buccinidae in Korean waters, 61–62.

2. Jooung Kyun Jeon. Preliminary investigation of DSP-intoxication of bivalves in Korean waters, 63–64.

4.2.2 Bulletin of the Korean Fisheries Society, Vol. 23, No. 2, 1990

1. Yong Ho Kim and Sang Chul Churg. Studies on the growth and molting of the Tiger Crab, Orithyia sinica (Linnaeus), 93–108.

2. Ik Kyo Chung. Fine structure of Laminaria religiosa Miyabe (Laminariales, Phaeophyta). 1. Composition of fixatives, 155– 166.

4.2.3 Bulletin of the Korean Fisheries Society, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1990

1. An Young Kim. A comparative study of oyster culture in Japan and Korea: Culture of hardened oyster seed, 253–262.

4.3 Korean Society of Fish Pathology

4.3.1 Journal of Fish Pathology Vol. 2, No. 2, 1989

1. Mi Seon Park and Seh Kyu Chun. Study on Marteilioides chungmuensis Comps, a parasite of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas Thunberg, 53–70.

2. Seh Kyu Chun and Myong Joo Oh. Ichthyophonus infection in Rock Bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus), 71–74.

3. Doo Saing Sim, Sung Hee Jung, Seh Kyu Chun and Hyung Sock Park. A morphological and histopathological study on Dactylogylus sp. of parasitizing of cultured seabass, Lateolabrax japonicus, 75–82.

4.4 Korean Aquaculture Society

4.4.1 Journal of Aquaculture Vol. 2, No. 1, 1989

1. Yong Ki Hong, Chul Hyun Sohn and Jung Won Chang. Genetic improvement for low salinity-tolerant Porphyra sp. by cell culture technique, 1–7.

2. Nam Gil Kim, Yong In Won and Chul Hyun Sohn. Morphology of utricles and maturing period in Codium fragile (Suringar) Hariot, 33–41.

4.5 Korean Oceanology Society

4.5.1 Journal of the Oceanological Society of Korea, Vol. 24, No. 2, 1989

1. Kyung Sik Woo. Textural isotopic and chemical investigation of cultured pearls, 69–78.

2. Joong Kyun Jeon and Hyung Tack Huh. Paralytic shellfish poisons in the cultured mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis, 79–83.

4.6 Others

4.6.1 Bulletin of Fisheries Science Institute, Kunsan National Fisheries Junior College, Vol. 5, 1989

1. Jeong Yeol Lee. Nitrogen metabolism of hard clam, Meretrix lusoria (Roding), 1–9.

2. Geon Bae Kim and Kuen Woo Lee. Changes freezing time of small shrimps (Trachypenaeus curvirostris) at various conditions, 41–44.