Annex VIII-7

THE STATUS AND PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING IN MALAYSIA

Ong Kah Sin
Director
Fisheries Research Institute
Penang

I. AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION

Malaysia's total aquaculture production in 1989 amounted to 53, 118.92 tonnes, while the overall total fish production for the year was 882,492 tonnes (Annual Fisheries Statistics 1989, Department of Fisheries Malaysia). Although aquaculture production constituted only 6.0 % of the overall fish production in 1989, the total production from aquaculture showed an increase of 13.1 % over the previous year's production of 46,957.92 tonnes.

According to the Annual Fisheries Statistics 1989, the production from the various aquaculture systems are as follows:

The statistics show that the bulk of the aquaculture production in Malaysia is derived from seafarming, particularly the culture of the cockle (Anadara granosa) on suitable, sheltered mudflats on the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. With 39,346.12 tonnes in 1989, the cockle accounted for 74 % of the total aquaculture production. Together with the production from the other coastal aquaculture systems, coastal aquaculture accounts for about 85 % of the total aquaculture production.

II. MAJOR SEAFARMING SPECIES IN MALAYSIA

The cockle (Anadara granosa) is by far the most important species cultured in Malaysia (Ong, 1988), and present culture management is based on a detailed study on the growth and mortality of the cockle under commercial culture on several mudflats in the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia (Ng, 1986). Other bivalves which are also cultured and are of growing importance in Malaysia include the mussel (Perna viridis) (Choo, 1979) and oysters (Crassostrea belcheri, C. iredalei, Ostrea folium, Pinctada sp.) (Chin & Lim, 1975; Ng, 1979; Ong & Rabihah, 1989).

With regard to coastal finfishes, the most important species for seafarming is the giant seabass (Lates calcarifer), due in large measure to the increasing availability of artificially produced fry/fingerlings of this species. The first hatchery-raised fry of seabass in Malaysia were produced at the Fisheries Research Institute, Penang in 1982 based on wild broodfish collected from the coastal waters of Penang (Ong, 1985; Ali et al., 1985), and by 1989, over 114,000,000 Lates seeds were produced at the Marine Finfish Hatchery in Tanjung Demong, Terengganu (1989 Annual Fisheries Statistics). The grouper (Epinephelus suillus, E. malabaricus, E. tauvina) and the snapper (Lutjanus johni, L. argentimaculatus) are also very popular species for seafarming, but their culture expansion is constrained by the lack of natural seeds, while the technology for their seed production is only at its early stage of development in Malaysia (Ong, 1990).

Several crustacean species are also used for coastal aquaculture in Malaysia. These include the giant tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon), the banana shrimp (P. merguiensis) (Ong et al., 1988) and the mangrove crab (Scylla serrata). While the culture of these species is carried out mostly in coastal brackishwater ponds, some culture activities are also carried out using floating cages in sheltered coastal waters. More recently, the culture or “fattening” of the spiny lobster (Panulirus polyphagus) in floating cages has also been carried out on a small-scale (Devakie, 1988). The culture expansion of the crab and the spiny lobster is at present constrained by the lack of stockable young ones, in view of various problems encountered in the hatchery propagation for these species (Ong, 1966; Ong, 1967).

At present, there is no significant farming of seaweeds in Malaysia, although small-scale farming of Eucheuma cottonii is carried out in Semporna, Sabah and the experimental scale culture of Gracilaria (Polycavernosa changii) carried out on the Middle Bank in Penang (Choo, 1990; Faazaz, 1986).

III. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

The Department of Fisheries Malaysia provides various support services, including research and development, extension and training for the development of aquaculture in Malaysia. The research and development carried out by the Department has been reviewed by Ong (1985 & 1989), and the aquaculture extension service by Tan (1985). These support services are provided so as to achieve the aquaculture development targets and objectives (Shahrom, 1985; Tengku Ubaidillah, 1985).

The major aquaculture R & D topics considered essential for the future development of seafarming include:

• development of appropriate and cost-effective breeding and culture system;
• aquaculture feed development;
• quality of fish/shellfish products;
• biotechnology and fish health management;
• identification of new species for culture.

Development of Appropriate and Cost-effective Breeding and Culture Systems

In order to ensure sustainable development of the aquaculture industry and to make it more competitive with other economic activities, there is a constant need to develop appropriate and more cost-effective systems for aquaculture. Research has to be carried out on both the hatchery and grow-out phases, covering optimum stocking densities, disease prevention, optimum enclosure designs etc., including suitable offshore seafarming systems in order to overcome the increasingly frequent mortalities of cage-culture fish in inshore waters. In the case of culture operations still dependent on the often inconsistent supply of natural or wild seeds, e.g. in the culture of groupers (Epinephelus spp.), research has to be stepped up to the setting up of commercially viable hatcheries/nurseries.

Aquaculture Feed Development

Aquaculture operations, particularly the culture of carnivorous coastal finfishes which still depends on trash fish, often encounter problems in obtaining sufficient supplies of trash fish as fish feed or suitable compounded feeds within the means of the operators. Research needs to be undertaken to overcome this problem and also to develop cost-effective systems for the production of live food organisms required particularly in the seed production phase.

Quality of Fish/Shellfish Products

Research in seafarming has to take into consideration the quality of the products as well. Fry/fingerlings produced from hatcheries and the fish/shellfish harvested from both the natural environment as well as from aquaculture operations have to possess the desired characteristics not just for the culturists/fishermen but also for the consumers, and to meet recognized sanitary standards. Research and monitoring of the coastal environment and of the quality of fish/shellfish products have therefore to be carried out on a regular basis while proper post-harvest handling techniques have to be adopted to ensure the quality of the products.

Biotechnology and Fish Health Management

There is a need for fisheries research to investigate the applications of biotechnology, e.g. in the development and selection of strains/species with desired characteristics for aquaculture, including good feed conversion, disease resistance, extraction and production of valuable substances from aquaculture products etc. The technology for the culture of various species of live food organisms could possibly be upgraded for the culture of selected species for the extraction of desired compounds.

Identification of new species for culture

Although coastal aquaculture accounts for the bulk of aquaculture production in Malaysia, this production is to a large extent derived only from a single species (Anadara granosa), with a few other species accounting for a very small portion. Research needs to be intensified to develop the technology for the breeding and culture of more species with commercial value for seafarming as well as for coastal sea-ranching. Apart from the grouper, snapper and oysters which are receiving increasing attention, other species which need to be covered in future include the giant clam, abalone, sea-urchins and sea cucumber.

IV. RULES AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING AQUACULTURE

The law governing fisheries in Malaysia is contained in the Fisheries Act 1985. Under this Act, the Fisheries (Marine Culture System) Regulations 1990 have been made and gazetted in 1990. Culture systems covered under these Regulations include rack and pole culture, raft culture, cage and pen culture, and on-bottom culture systems.

Besides these Regulations, the Government has also introduced various incentives for the development of aquaculture in the country (Hoo, 1985). These incentives include pioneer status, investment tax credit and export incentives.

V. PAPERS ON SITE SELECTION CRITERIA FOR WELL-PRACTICED SEAFARMING SPECIES

Information on site selection criteria for the culture of the cockle is contained in some publications on cockle biology and culture (Pathansali, 1964; Ng, 1984; Devakie, 1986). Suitable water salinity, texture of the bottom substratum and shelter from strong winds and wave action are the main criteria used for selecting sites for cockle culture.

The general water quality standards for aquaculture in Malaysia have been reported by Liong (1984).

VI. LIST OF RELEVANT INSTITUTIONS

Training of aquaculture extension workers within the Department of Fisheries Malaysia is conducted from time to time by the Fisheries Research Institute (of the Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture Malaysia) at its headquarters in Penang, and also at its branches, i.e. at the National Prawn Fry Production & Research Centre, Kampung Pulau Sayak, Kedah particularly in all fields of coastal aquaculture; at the Brackishwater Aquaculture Research Centre, Gelang Patah, Johore in certain aspects of brackishwater pond management; and at the Freshwater Fish Research Centre, Batu Berendam, Malacca in special courses on freshwater fish breeding and culture. The training courses are organized by the Extension and Training Division of the Department of Fisheries Malaysia, and the courses are usually conducted jointly by staff from this Division as well as from the Fisheries Research Institute and its branches.

Certain courses for aquaculture extension workers are also organized and conducted by the Extension and Training Division at the Fisheries Training Institute, Batu Maung, Penang.

VII. LIST OF PAPERS ON SEAFARMING

Relevant publications by the Department of Fisheries Malaysia pertaining to coastal aquaculture and in particular seafarming, cited in this paper are listed under the reference section.

Acknowledgment

I wish to thank the Director-General of Fisheries Malaysia, Dato' Shahrom bin Haji Abdul Majid, for his guidance and the opportunity to present this paper.

References

Ali, A., Ramli A. and A. Ahmad Fua. 1985. Pengeluaran benih ikan siakap (Lates calcarifer). Risalah Perikanan Bil. 21. Jabatan Perikanan, Kementarian Pertanian Malaysia.

Annual Fisheries Statistics 1989. Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Choo, P.S. 1979. The culture of the mussel, Mytilus viridis L. in the Straits of Johore. Malays. Agri. J. 52 (1): 68–76.

Choo, P.S. 1990. Status of production and utilization of seaweeds in Malaysia. Paper presented in the Regional Workshop on the Culture and Utilization of Seaweeds. 27–31 August 1990. Cebu City, Philippines.

Chin, P.K. and A.L. Lim. 1975. Some aspects of oyster culture in Sabah. Fisheries Bulletin No. 5. Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development Malaysia.

Devakie, N. 1986. Observations on the current status and potential of cockle culture in Malaysia. Paper presented at the BOBP Workshop on the Biology of Anadara granosa in Malaysia, Jan. 22–23. 1986. Penang, Malaysia.

Devakie, N. 1988. Ternakan udang karang dalam sangkar di pulau Aman, Pulau Pinang. Berita Perikanan Bil. 3. Jabatan Perikanan Malaysia.

Faazaz, A. L. 1986. Preliminary results of the experimental culture of the red seaweed, Gracilaria sp. in Malaysia. Fisheries Bulletin No. 20, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture Malaysia.

Fisheries Act 1985. Fisheries (Marine Culture System) Regulations 1990.

Hoo, A.T. 1985. Investment incentives for aquaculture industry. Report on Aquaculture Conference, 9–12 December 1985. Holiday Inn, Johore Baharu. Sponsored by Fisheries Department (Ministry of Agriculture) in collaboration with International Convention Secretariat (Prime Minister's Department).

Liong, P.C. 1984. Water quality standards for aquaculture in Malaysia. Risalah Perikanan Bil. 20. Jabatan Perikanan, Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia.

Ng, F.O. 1979. Experimental culture of a flat oyster (Ostrea folium Linnaeus) in Malaysian waters. Malays. Agri. J. 52(2): 103–113.

Ng, F.O. 1984. Cockle culture. SAFIS Extension Manual Series, No. 13.

Ng, F.O. 1986. Growth and Mortality of the Malaysian cockle (Anadara granosa) under commercial culture: analysis through length frequency data. BOBP/WP/47, Madras, India. July 1986.

Ong, K.S. 1964. The early developmental stages of Scylla serrata Forskal reared in the laboratory. IPFC 11th Session, Kuala Lumpur. Proc. IPFC 11(II): 135–146.

Ong, K.S. 1967. A preliminary study of the early larval development of the spiny lobster Panulirus polyphagus (Herbst). Malays. Agri. J. 45(4): 429–443.

Ong, K.S. 1985. Research as a support service for aquaculture development. Report on Aquaculture Conference, 9–12 December 1985. Holiday Inn, Johore Bahru. Sponsored by Fisheries Department (Ministry of Agriculture) in collaboration with International Convention Secretariat (Prime Minister's Department).

Ong, K.S. 1988. Aquaculture development in Malaysia in the 80's. Risalah Perikanan Bil. 18. Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture Malaysia.

Ong, K.S., P.C. Liong and H. Hanafi. 1988. Prawn/shrimp culture technology in Malaysia. Paper presented at the Seminar on Aquaculture Investment Opportunities in Sabah. KONELAYAN, 10–13 August 1988. Kota Kinabalu, Sabah.

Ong, K.S. and Rabihah Mahmood, 1989. Status and problems of mollusc production, sanitation and marketing in Malaysia. In: Report of the Workshop and Study Tour on Mollusc Sanitation and Marketing. Regional Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project RAS/86/024.

Ong, K.S. 1989. Fisheries research in Malaysia for the 1990's. Paper presented at the Malaysian Society of Marine Sciences Seminar on “Research Priorities for Marine Science Research in the 1990's”, Institute of Advanced Studies, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.

Ong, K.S. 1990. Kajayaan pertama di Malaysia dalam pembiakan ikan kerapu. Berita Perikanan Bil. 6, Jabatan Perikanan Malaysia.

Pathansali, D. 1964. Notes on the biology of the cockle, Anadara granosa L. Proc. Indo-Pacific Fish. Coun., 12(II): 84–98.

Shahrom bin Haji Abdul Majid. 1985. Country statement, Malaysia. Symposium on fishing industry, 12–18th Nov. 1985, Tokyo, Japan.

Tan, C.K. 1985. Agriculture extension service. Report on Aquaculture conference, 9–12 December 1985. Holiday Inn, Johore Bahru. Sponsored by Fisheries Department (Ministry of Agriculture) in collaboration with International Convention Secretariat (Prime Minister's Department).

Tengku Dato' Ubaidillah bin Abdul Kadir. 1985. Aquaculture development strategy and programme. Report on Aquaculture Conference, 9 December 1985. Holiday Inn, Johore Bahru. Sponsored by Fisheries Department (Ministry of Agriculture) in collaboration with International Convention Secretariat (Prime Minister's Department).

Annex VIII-8

PRESENT STATUS OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES IN MYANMAR

U Hla Win
Assistant Director
Department of Fisheries

I. INTRODUCTION

The Union of Myanmar has a coastline of 1,760 miles, stretching throughout the length of the country. According to the topographical and ecological characteristics, Myanmar can be divided into three distinct regions.

Rakhine coast, located in the north-western region, is 443 miles long and except for a few large big islands in the southern portion, it is directly exposed to the open sea. The littoral zone is rocky and steep and the shelf is narrow and uneven. Nevertheless the areas between the islands are spacious, shallow and even.

The middle region comprises the Ayeyarwaddy delta with its huge network of riverlets and immense mangrove areas. As a result of silt deposition from the rivers, the littoral zone is wide and shallow, while the degree of water turbidity is rather high as a result of the suspended silty particles. This region, particularly at the mouth of large rivers, is affected by seasonal salinity fluctuation, high in summer and pre-monsoon seasons and low in the monsoon and post-monsoon periods.

The southernmost coastal region of the country is a 670-mile long stretch dotted with over 1000 islands of various sizes. This chain of islands protects the region from severe and abrupt hydrological changes which typically occur in tropical open seas negatively affecting the aquatic ecosystem.

II. AQUACULTURE IN MYANMAR

Aquaculture in Myanmar was initiated in late 1950 while fresh water aquaculture gained momentum only in the 1970s. On the other hand, mariculture has been neglected. Recently, however a number of research investigations regarding mariculture have been conducted by several institutions, which revealed great developmental potentials in this sector of the aquaculture industry (Fig. 1). However, despite efforts exerted by the Department of Fisheries, through extension and demonstration activities, the local coastal communities remain rather reluctant to venture in any consistent project. As a result, the industry is still poorly developed. The possible major constraints and drawbacks include the limited demand for seafarming organisms, low prices and too many marketing restrictions.

FIGURE 1. Potential mariculture sites in Myanmar.

In 1988 the above situation changed completely. The State Law and Order Restoration Council, with an aim to ensure greater involvement of the private sector, introduced an open-door market economy. As a result, the role of private enterprises have been highly encouraged, with a noticeable increase in production and trade. Numerous opportunities and prospects exist for developing mariculture and making it profitable. The potential exits for expanding mariculture industry up to 100,000 acres on coastal land and a lot more in coastal waters.

Over 12,000 acres of tidal waste land have been transformed into shrimp farms. In addition to the incentives provided by the government, another factor which is responsible for the growth of mariculture in this area, is the high market value of the shrimp, even though the yield per unit area remains low. As a result, coastal communities are requesting government assistance to acquire advanced shrimp culture technology in order to increase production.

To cope with the urgent need to develop the industry, the Department of Fisheries plans to establish three seafarming research cum extension stations in each coastal region. These stations will have specific objectives and assignments involving seed production of commercially important species, netcage and pen culture of crustaceans and finfish, culture of mollusc and seaweed in open and confined waters, farm management, post-harvest technology, etc. In the sometime, UNDP/FAO has sent experts to identify the suitable areas and to outline a preparatory project framework (PPF) for upgrading coastal fishery communities. The major component of the PPF involves seafarming activities aiming to assist the establishment of these stations.

The commercially important species which have large mariculture potential and scope in Myanmar are the following:

As the industry is only in its infant state, the seed supply of the various species cultured comes mainly from the wild. Production of artificial seed has been successful with several Penaeus spp. and Macrobrachium, while research on nursery and rearing techniques are still being conducted. One of the main aspects in hatchery production of seeds is the availability of sexually mature individuals which can be readily spawned. At present, these are obtained entirely from the wild. Experiments to induce maturation in adult specimens have not been successful.

In the past, the rights for land-use were given exclusively for agriculture purposes and no particular rules and regulations for aquaculture were practiced. These prevailing handicaps greatly hampered the development of the industry. Realizing the potential of seafarming for contributing to the economy, the State Law and Order Restoration Council promulgated “The Law Relating to Aquaculture” in September 1989, which has three objectives:

1. to take conservation measures on natural aquatic resources,
2. to regulate and develop the industry, and
3. to utilize the unexploited aquaculturable resources and potentials.

According to this law any person can apply to the Department of Fisheries for a permit to lease the place and operate an aquatic farm on land or in water. The Department of Fisheries may lease land or areas in the open water which are unconnected with any Government department and may grant a license for an appropriate period. Consequently, about 60,000 acres of fish farms have been reportedly leased. Furthermore the law, as a protection and conservation measure, states that no person shall culture any aquatic organism prohibited by the Department and no person shall import or export live fish without prior permission of the Department.

The law makes available for lease hundreds of thousands of acres of coastal land and water to be converted into productive seafarming. Moreover the potential fish farmers are highly encouraged by the new open-door economy policy permitting the private entrepreneurs and co-operatives to undertake trading with foreign countries.

List of institutions that can serve as resources for training of aquaculture extension works.

1. Department of Fisheries
2. Myanmar Fisheries Enterprise
3. Marine Biology Department (Msulamyain University)

Development communication personnel in the Department of Fisheries:

U Hla Win
Assistant Director
Research Division

Annex VIII-9

PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES, RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Nelson A. Lopez
Chief, Mariculture Section
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

I. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, government efforts had been focused on strengthening the sustainable use of the country's coastal resources through seafarming to augment production from aquaculture and from fishing. The seafarming industry, as earlier reported, is on the infant stage in the Philippines, although traditionally, bivalve culture along the Manila Bay area has long been practiced in nearshore villages of Manila, Cavite and Bulacan provinces.

The introduction of new technology and the modernization of a seafarming system through research and technology transfer have brought forth encouragement and support from government and private sectors to further develop the industry as one major source of fishery products. It has also attracted foreign assistance from international research and funding institutions such as the International Development Research Center (IDRC), Asian Development Bank (ADB), Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (UNDP/FAO) and others.

As envisioned, the goal of the various seafarming projects in the Philippines is geared toward sustainable production and self-sufficiency in fishery products. It is also along this line that the government has placed a high priority to the implementation of an unified approach to managing the bay resources with the end in view of conservation, rehabilitation and optimized utilization of the coastal resources.

II. STATUS OF SEAFARMING PRODUCTION

As of 1989, the per capita fish consumption of the country was recorded at 40.0 kg, which shows a half kg decrease from 1987 but still an increase of 6.80 kg compared to 1986. This indicates the tremendous population growth now numbering approximately 60.8, with a projected annual increase of 2.80%. The GNP dropped to 4.60%.

Of the total population, 982,392 are in the fishing sector which are categorized as follows: 250,000 heads in the aquaculture sector; 675,677 in the municipal fisheries and 56,715 in the commercial fisheries sector (Table 1).

Table 1. Number of seafarming households and area under seafarming production, 1986–1989.

The increasing production trend in seafarming is shown in Table 2 constituting 12.56% for total fish landings, followed by 10.69% from brackishwater culture and 3.28% from freshwater fish culture. Compared to the production of previous years, the seafarming industry increased by 13,571 tonnes valued at 846,076.

No significant production data is available on finfish commodity, except that of capture fisheries, since mariculture of finfish is still on its verification stage (Table 3). Table 4 shows the production of mollusc. Other than mussel and oyster, the rest of the species were gathered from the wild. Production of crustaceans increased by 20% (Table 5). The bulk of the production was mostly from penaeid shrimp culture.

On seaweed, Gracilaria species gathered from the wild recorded higher production compared to Eucheuma species (Table 6), while among the miscellaneous commercial marine species gathered, sea cucumber still registered the highest production at 3,534 MT (Table 7).

III. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN SEAFARMING

The focus of current research in seafarming, is mostly derived from the series of training courses and workshops conducted by the Regional Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project (RAS/02/009) which enabled at least 27 Filipino scientists, researchers, and technicians to avail of the courses since the inception of the project (Annex A).

The development thrust in seafarming has led to the transfer of applicable technologies and knowledge gained from local, regional and international technology exchange, research verifications and refinements, and actual observations/demonstrations by the technicians and fish farmers.

Table 3. Total seafarming production of fish by species in the Philippines, 1985–1989.

Table 4. Total seafarming production of molluscs by species in the Philippines, 1985–1989.

Table 5. Total seafarming production of crustaceans by species in the Philippines, 1985– 1989.

Table 6. Total seafarming production of seaweeds by species in the Philippines, 1985–1989.

Table 7. Total seafarming production of other cultured species in the Philippines, 1985– 1989.

IV. SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES AND FUTURE TRENDS

The current program thrust in seafarming is being carried out through a multisectoral effort involving government and non-government entitles with the support of research institutions, among which is the Fisheries Sector Program an ADB assisted loan program of the Department of Agriculture (DA) which aims at conserving, protecting, rehabilitating and sustaining the country's fisheries and aquatic resources. Salient features benefitting the seafarming sector are the aquaculture component that will identify the priority needs in developing the coastal aquaculture industry and the coastal resources management (CRM) component of which seafarming is eyed as an alternative means of livelihood for fish farmers to benefit from a government credit program.

Following the same concept is IDRC's collaborative assistance with SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department in implementing exclusive seafarming projects at designated areas in the country which are intended as training and extension centers on seafarming and searanching activities.

The national government on the other hand, through the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), has commissioned the Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD) to establish the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development System (NARRDS) which recently launched two major seafarming programs, namely the Seaweed Management and the National Sea Mollusc programs.

Similarly, under the UNDP/FAO assisted Regional Seafarming Project, the following prospective programs are given priority considerations:

1. Fish Health Management
2. Seaweed Production and Utilization
3. Mollusc Sanitation and Marketing
4. Seafarming Socio-Economics
5. Seafarming Resources Atlas
6. GIS Applications in Seafarming

All the above projected activities were based on three major training programs and workshops conducted by the Project with priorities focused on the first three activities.

V. SEAFARMING CONSTRAINTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

A more detailed presentation of the problem areas per seafarming species had earlier been cited in the report by Lopez (1989). Several issues and constraints on coastal aquaculture besetting the seafarming industry of the country are summarized as follows:

• Destructive and illegal fishing
• Environmental degradation and destruction of fish habitats
• Resource use conflicts
• Inadequate information on the biology of potential species for mariculture
• Poor post-harvest practices and inadequate facilities
• High cost of inputs/high risks
• Poor access to credit
• Inadequate research facilities and funding for research
• Lack of experienced researchers in conducting seafarming related studies
• Inadequate technical know-how of fish farmers.
• Inadequate hatchery production and post-production technologies to support the expansion of the industry
• Lack of clear-cut quality standards and an enforcement agency for export products
• Natural calamities
• Occurrence of pest and diseases in intensive culture systems
• Deteriorating quality of seedstocks, pollution and siltation of water resources
• Lack of government support to small fishfarmers
• Lack of government policies to strengthen the competitive stance of the industry with other nations

VI. CONCLUSION

Coastal aquaculture in the Philippines has been identified as the resource in enhancing fisheries production in the community level considering some critical factors affecting the fisheries resources of the country. Competitive commercial fishing within a limited zone has forced fish operators to engage in illegal operations within the municipal fisheries, while the conversion of mangrove areas to brackishwater fish ponds has been so extensive as to result in the degradation of the coastal ecosystem.

It is on these premises that the government has keenly considered coastal resources management as a holistic approach to curb the depletion and degradation of coastal resources, and enhance its productivity. The approach would include adoptions of suitable culture methods and formulating appropriate policies and regulations to properly manage the seafarming resources.

VII. BIBLIOGRAPHIC LIST OF RESEARCH PAPERS ON SEAFARMING

Alcala, A.C. 1986. Distribution and abundance of giant clams (Family Tridacnidae) in the South-Central Philippines, Silliman J. 33(1–4): 1–9.

Alcazar, S.N. and E.P. Solis. 1986. Spawning, Larval Development and Growth of Tridacna maxima (Roding) (Bivalva Tridacnidae). Silliman J. 33(1–4): 65– 73.

Alcazar, S.N., E.P. Solis and A.C. Alcala. 1987. Serotonin-Induced Spawning and Larval Rearing of the China Clam, Hippopus porcellanus Rosewater (Bivalvia: Tridacnidae). Aquaculture 66: 359–368.

Fortez, R.D. 1987. Status of Seabass (Lates calcarifer) Culture in the Philippines, p. 62–64. In: J.W. Copland and D.L. Grey (eds.) Management of Wild and Cultured Seabass/Barramundi (Lates calcarifer). Proceedings of an International Workshop, 24–30 September 1986. Darwin, N.T., Australia. Australia Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, Australia.

Juinio, A.R., L.A.B. Menez, C.L. Villanoy and E.D. Gomez. 1986. Giant Clam Resources in the Philippines. Tech. Rep. University of the Philippines -Marine Science Institute, Diliman, Quezon City.

McManus, L. and T.E. Chua. The Coastal Environmental Profile of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. Manila, Philippines. (In press).

Mines, A.N. 1986. An assessment of the Fisheries of Lingayen Gulf. Department of Marine Fisheries College of Fisheries, University of the Philippines in the Visayas, Diliman, Quezon City.

Onate, J.A. and M.A. Naguit. A Preliminary Study on the Effect of Increased Nitrate Concentrations on the Growth of Giant Clams Hippopus hippopus. Paper presented at the National Giant Clam Workshop, 15–17 March 1988. Silliman University, Dumaguete. (In press).

Palpal-Latoc, E.Q., S.J.S. Caoile and A.M. Cariaga. 1986. Bacterial Depuration of Oyster (Crassostrea iredelai) in the Philippines, p. 293–295. In: J.L. Maclean, L.B. Dizon and L.V. Hosillos (eds.). The First Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines.

Rabanal, H.R. 1986. Seafarming as Alternative to Small-scale Fishing in ASEAN Region. SF/86/WP. ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project, Philippines.

Samson, E.D. 1985. Fisheries, p. 101–154. In: G. Kent and M.J. Valencia (eds.). Marine Policy in Southeast Asia. University of California Press. Los Angeles, USA.

Trinidad-Roa, M.J. Observations on Spawning and Larval Rearing of Giant Clams in the Pangasinan, Philippines. Paper presented at the International Giant Clam Workshop, 18–23 April 1988. James Cook University, Australia. (In press).

Trinidad-Roa, M.J. and E.D. Gomez. Maintenance and Care of Giant Clams (Bivalvia Tridacnidae) in Marine Aquaria. Paper presented at the International Seminar on Marine Aquarium Management, 14–17 September 1987. Bangsaen, Thailand. (In press).

Young, A. 1987. Shellfish Mariculture in Southeast Asia: Status, Constraints and Prospects, p. 39–45. In: K. Juntarashote, S. Bahramtanarat and H. Grizeb (eds.), Shellfish Culture in Southeast Asia. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre, Bangkok, Thailand.

Annex A

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS PER
TRAINING COURSES AND WORKSHOPS

Training Courses

Seaweed Culture in the Philippines

Ms. L.D. Rivera Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Products
Ms. R. M. Legasto Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Products
Ms. Daisy Ladra Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Products
Mr. V. Villena Lucap Fisheries Station
Mr. Gregorio Clave

Oyster Culture in Korea (Rep.)

Ms. Loida Samsin Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Products
Mr. Teodulo Dante Binayakayan, Manila Bay, Cavite
Mr. Renato Culla Binayakayan, Manila Bay, Cavite

Culture of Seabass (Lates calcarifer) in Thailand

NIL

Marine Finfish Netcage Culture in Singapore

Ms. Marita Ocampo Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Products
Mr. T. Toledo Manila Bay, Bacoor, Cavite City
Mr. E. Delamide Manila Bay, Bacoor, Cavite City

Culture of Kelp (Laminaria japonica) in China

Ms. Ethel Llana
Ms. Virginia Luyun

Gracilaria Culture and Seaweed Processing in China

Ms. Purita Balean
Ms. Purita dela Pena
Mr. Nemesio Montano

Artificial Breeding and Culture of Abalone (Haliotis discus hannai) in Korea DPR

Mr. Nemensio Arevalo  Ms. Sofia Basa

Workshop/Training on Geographical Information System: Application in Aquaculture.

Ms. Cecilia Reyes Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Products

Workshops

Workshop and Study Tour on Mollusc Sanitation and Marketing

Regional Workshop on Seaweed Production Utilization

Ms. Ethel Gabral-Llana

Workshop on Fish Health Management in Asia and the Pacific

Mr. Alfredo Isidro
Mr. Jose Paclibare
Ms. Celia Pitogo
Ms. Elvira A. Baluyut

Annex VIII-10

PROGRESS OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES,
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN SRI LANKA

A.M. Jayasekara
Director
Inland Fisheries

I. BACKGROUND

Sri Lanka is situated in the Indian Ocean to the South of India between latitudes 6–10 N and longitudes 80–82 E. The island has a land area of approximately 65,610 km² and a coastline of 1,700 km in length. Topographically the island is characterized by a variety of land forms ranging from flat peneplains to a very complex assemblage of mountain, ridges, plateaux and valleys. The mountains, situated in the central part of the island, are surrounded by coastal lowlands. The island's maximum length is 436 km (272 miles) and the maximum width is 255 km (140 miles).

Sri Lanka's climate is tropical. The mean annual temperature in the coastal plain below 150 m elevation ranges from 26–28 °C while in the upper mountain zone above 1,500 m elevation it ranges from 15–19 °C.

The island is characterized by two monsoons, the South-West (May-July) and North-East (November-February). On the basis of annual rainfall the island is divided into dry, intermediate and wet zones. The mean annual rainfall in the three zones are 1,900 mm, 1,900–2,500 mm and 2,500–5,000 mm, respectively.

Coastal resources in Sri Lanka

The coastal zone may be defined as “that area lying within a limit of 300 metres landwards of the mean high water line and of 2 km seawards of the mean low water line in the case of rivers, streams, lagoons or any body of water connected to the sea either permanently or periodically, the landwards boundary shall extend to a limit of 2 km inland along that body of water (Fig. 1).

The coastal zone of the country consist of lagoons, estuaries, low lying delta lands and mangrove swamps, along with rocky sea coasts, sandy beaches, salterns and salt pans. It has been recorded that there are 45 estuaries and 40 true lagoons around the coast of Sri Lanka. The estuaries are of two types: basin estuaries where rivers discharge into relatively shallow basins which in turn open into the sea (Puttalam, Negombo and Jaffna lagoons) and riverine estuaries where rivers discharge into the sea by way of relatively narrow channels, eg. Kaluganga estuary and Kelaniganga estuary (Kotagama et al., 1989).

FIGURE 1. Diagrammatic presentation of the “coastal zone”. (Source: Sri Lanka Coastal Zone Management Plan Coast Conservation Department. January 1987).

The total extent of basin estuaries is estimated at 40,000 ha while the total area of the lagoons is around 20,000 ha. The lagoons are most common along the southern, south-eastern and eastern coasts. In some lagoons the water becomes hypersaline when sources of freshwater dry up and connection with the sea is lost due to the formation of sand barriers. According to another estimate the area of deep lagoons and river estuaries are 80,000 ha and the total area of shallow lagoons, tidal flats, mangrove swamps and saline marshes is 40,000 ha. While the former are the sites of important fisheries, the latter represent a vast potential resource for coastal aquaculture.

Recent remote sensing studies have indicated that there are 6,296 ha of mangroves in 6 coastal districts (Jayawardene, 1987) and the total area of mangroves is likely to be close to 10,000 ha. Out of the 24 Administrative Districts in Sri Lanka 13 have some form of maritime boundary. The emphasis on development of coastal aquaculture is restricted to these 13 districts with maritime boundaries.

The sea now recognized as belonging to Sri Lanka consists of Territorial sea extending to a distance of 12 nautical miles from the coast of the main land, the contiguous zone which extends a further 12 nautical miles from outer limits of the territorial sea, the EEZ which extends 200 nautical miles from the coast (that includes territorial sea and the contiguous zone) and the Internal waters (Fig. 2).

II. FISHERIES SECTOR

The marine fish catches originate mainly from the continental shelf which is about 22 km in width. The total fish production increased from 188,000 MT in 1980 to 221,000 MT in 1983, but decreased to 198,755 MT in 1988. The total fish production increased by 4.4% per annum from 1980 to 1983 and declined to 3.4% per annum for 1984 to 1988. The production from inland fisheries in Sri Lanka was estimated at 20,300 MT in 1980 and 36,100 MT in 1983. The production in 1989 was 205,286 MT. When compared to the growth rate of marine fish production (2.6% per annum) a high growth rate (19.5% per annum) of inland fish production was observed from 1980 to 1983. The annual per capita consumption of fish in Sri Lanka in 1983 was 15.75 kg. It decreased to 14.61 kg in 1986 and to about 15.21 kg in 1989.

In 1988, 162 MT of fresh fish, 1,826 MT of shrimps, 223 MT of lobsters and 575 MT of other crustaceans and molluscs were exported to European countries and Japan. In 1989, 4,587 MT of fish and fishery products valued at Rs. 1,215 million were exported.

III. CULTURE FISHERIES

In spite of the measures that have been taken by the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (MOFAR) to increase production of inland fish such as development of new culture techniques, like cage and pen culture, pond fish culture and development of seasonal village tanks, the contribution of aquaculture to the total fish production was not significant. The share of coastal aquaculture to the total production was 0.34% and 1.8% between 1980 to 1988. Aquaculture production increased from 30 MT in 1980 to 1,000 MT in 1987. The major reason for this low production is that the finfish aquaculture development was limited to research and pilot operations. Commercial operations will not be viable until product prices rise to sufficiently high levels.

FIGURE 2. Territory of Sri Lanka including the maritime zones. (Source: Survey Department, Sri Lanka).

However, brackishwater shrimp farming is growing rapidly largely due to high export prices. So far about 300 ha of land have been utilized for shrimp culture by the private sector. The production of shrimps by pond culture is about 700 MT.

IV. SEAWEED CULTURE

Gracillaria lichenoides (“Ceylon moss”) is exported for manufacturing of different agar products. The trade of the dried seaweeds in Sri Lanka collapsed during the second World War but picked up again in the late 1950's mainly because of strong demand from Japanese buyers. Around 50–60 tons of dried seaweeds are being exported annually from Puttalam area in the North Western part of the country.

Seaweed (Gracillaria sp.) collection for the production of agar was also a flourishing industry in the 60's, but it has become less popular in recent years. Kalpitiya lagoon, Koddyar Bay, Puttalam lagoon, Dutch Bay and Portugal Bay were the areas where men and women handpicked these plants. This weed is seasonally washed ashore where it is easily collected.

The growing interest in the development of seaweed resources is primarily due to their economic importance as a source of food, raw material for processing agar, alginates and carrageenan, and as an alternative source of livelihood to the people in the coastal areas. Seaweed growing if successful in Sri Lanka could substantially increase the export of dried seaweeds and hopefully initiate local processing of agar products. Hence, a research project has been initiated in 1988 to assess the applicability of seaweed culture technology in Sri Lanka. This seaweed culture project (1988–1991) is being assisted both technically and financially by the FAO/BOBP. The immediate objectives of the project are:

1. Assessment of the technical, economical and social feasibility of Gracillaria culture under Sri Lanka conditions;

2. Transfer of applied research results from a research institution to a community base commercial pilot operation; and

3. Community participation in technology transfer and evaluation.

The total contribution of BOBP in Sri Lanka is Rs 193,000, while the local contribution is mainly in kind.

In the experimental seaweed culture programme in Puttalam lagoon, spore setting and vegetative cutting techniques have been adopted. The vegetative cutting techniques showed promising results with an average production of 5 kg of seaweeds/meter rope. Spore setting experiments are being conducted at Kalpitiya in three types of frames made of coir ropes, nylon ropes and rafia.

Vegetative propagation experiments have also started at Kalpitiya and Anawasal. One hundred (100) lines of polyethylene will be placed in each site. Each line will consist of 50 pieces of plants. Nylon and coir ropes will be used as substrates.

Development of small-scale culture practices of these seaweeds would greatly enhance the economical condition of the industry.

V. BIVALVE RESOURCES

Bivalve resources are considerable in the coastal waters of Sri Lanka. Edible mussels and oysters are known to exist in Kalpitiya and Puttalam lagoons and maybe in some other lagoons too. Many fishing families involved in deep-sea fishing turn to bivalve fishery when the sea is rough during monsoon. Bivalves are usually salted and dried. Window pane oyster (Placuna placenta) fisheries in the Tambalgam Bay was a flourishing export oriented industry until 1950's. An export market system for some bivalves in some areas of the country has just started (Indrasena and Wanninayake, 1986).

Although mollusc resources are considerable in Sri Lanka waters, their present exploitation is far below the level of natural production and is confined to wild stocks, as bivalve culture is not practiced in the country. Therefore a research project was initiated in 1983 to test the feasibility of various types of mollusc culture suitable for artisanal application in Sri Lanka. Rafts and racks are being tried to culture mussels and oysters, while natural mud bottoms in basin are used to culture cockles.

Culture experiments on the Indian oyster, Crassostrea madrasensis, have proved possible in waters with salinities of 10–50 ppt (Indrasena, 1985). With the introduction of its culture in 1982, this oyster has become popular among people around the culture areas.

Experiments carried out in Trincomalee Bay, North-eastern Sri Lanka on the settlement and growth of oyster spat, showed that the spat spawned throughout the year with at least two peaks in June-August and October-January.

NARA has introduced an experimental bivalve culture project (1984–1987) in Sri Lanka with financial and technical assistance from IDRC. The general objective of this study was to test the feasibility of various types of mollusc culture suitable for artisanal application in Sri Lanka. Specifically the project sought to:

1. study the applicability of rack, raft and stake culture in selected areas for local mussels and oysters;

2. train Sri Lankan research workers in the relevant research techniques; and

3. cooperate with rural fishermen in the development and implementation of the suggested culture systems.

The total IDRC contribution was Cd$ 158,450 while the local contribution was in kind. The project was extended in 1987.

The average production of brown mussel (Perna perna) from a raft of 8×5 m in Puttalam lagoon (North-western Province) was 40,500 kg with a survival rate of 54%. The estimated profit per raft is Rs 26,640. The culture of the green mussel (Perna viridis) has been carried out both in Puttalam lagoon and Trincomalee Bay (Eastern Province). The average length of 60–70 cm after a culture period of 6–7 months, registering a growth rate of 0.9–1.0 cm/month, was achieved. Experimental studies on raft culture of oyster (Crassostrea madrasensis) in Puttalam lagoon showed an average length of 88.0 mm after a culture period of 12 months with a survival rate of 19%. The extension programme of brown mussel raft culture in Puttalam lagoon has been started. An experimental mussel raft culture programme has commenced in March 1990 with the financial assistance of the North-western Provincial Council.

VI. CONCLUSIONS

In Sri Lanka seaweeds are collected from the wild in small-scale for agar processing and for export. Culture of seaweeds is limited to experimental trials. Oyster and mussel resources are considerable, but the present exploitation is far below the level of natural production. Molluscs as a food is popular among the people in some parts of the coastal areas in Sri Lanka. Experiments are being conducted on oyster culture. There is a great scope for seaweed and mussel culture as an economic activity.

Reference

Indrasena W.M. and T.B. Wanninayake, 1986. Settlement and growth of Oyster Spat in Trincomalee Bay, Sri Lanka. In: Maclean, L.B., Dizon and L.V. Hessilles (eds.). First Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines, 1986. pp 59–62.

Ketagama S.W., L. Pinto and J.I. Samarakoon, 1989. Sri Lanka. In Directory of Asian Wetlands. (ed.) Derek A. Scott. IUCN. The World Conservation Union.

Annex VIII-11

PROGRESS REPORT OF SEAFARMING ACTIVITIES
IN THAILAND

Chanintorn Sritongsuk
Director
Coastal Aquaculture Division
Department of Fisheries

I. INTRODUCTION

Thailand has a coastline of approximately 2,600 km along the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea. The coastal area has been explored for aquaculture activities over a relatively long period, resulting in its present level of expansion.

Seafarming is one area of aquaculture which is undertaken in the coastal sublittoral zone. Thailand has numerous species of fish, mollusc and seaweed suitable for seafarming development. At present, the species that are cultured and whose culture technology are rather well established in Thailand are seabass, grouper, green mussel, blood cockle, oyster and shrimp.

II. SEAFARMING SPECIES

1. Seabass

Lates calcarifer is suitable for culture in ponds, pens and netcages. Pen culture is still not widely practiced due to the difficulty in locating suitable areas for this kind of culture operation. The area utilized for seabass netcage culture was 62,671 rai in 1987 and 72,992 rai in 1988 (1 ha= 6.5 rai). The production during 1988 was 654 MT, valued at 50 million baht. Even though the culture area had increased in 1988 by about 10,321 rai over that of the previous year, the yearly production and value thereof were more or less the same during the two-year period, indicating a decline in production per rai during 1988 (Table 1).

2. Grouper

The species of grouper cultured are Epinephelus tauvina, Epinephelus malabaricus and Epinephelus salmoides. The area utilized for netcage operation increased to 43,052 rai in 1988 from 30,644 rai in 1987, a 29% increase. The total production of grouper from netcage operation during 1988 was 358 MT, valued at 90 million baht, which was 15 MT higher than the 1987 production. The main constraint in expanding grouper culture is the shortage of fingerlings. Even though induced spawning of grouper in captivity has been a success, hatchery production of grouper fingerlings is far from being adequate to meet the heavy demand by the netcage culture operations (Table 1).

3. Blood cockle

Two species of cockle, Anadara granosa and Anadara nodifera are suitable for culture in the coastal zone of Thailand. However, farmers still prefer A. granosa to A. nodifera on account of market preference. The area utilized for cockle culture operation increased from 10,490 rai in 1987 to 12,756 rai in 1988. The production in 1988 was 4,652 MT, valued at 31 million baht. Production declined by about 51% over the 1987 production. The decline of cockle production in 1988 was due to the deterioration of the culture grounds in the inner gulf area and limited supply of cockle spat. The new cockle culture grounds in southern Thailand accounts for the increase in the culture area during 1988 (Table 1).

4. Green mussel

The culture technique for green mussel, Perna viridis, in Thailand is still limited to the pole method, as practiced over the past decades. The area utilized for green mussel culture was 3,067 rai in 1987 and 3,646 rai in 1988, which accounts for a 16% increase. The 1988 production was 44,230 MT, valued at 93 million baht. Although there was an increase of only 16% in culture area, there was a 46% increase in production over that of 1987 (Table 1).

5. Oysters

The main commercially cultured species are Saccostrea commercialis, Crassostrea lugubris and Crassostrea belcheri. The area utilized for oyster culture in 1987 was 1,483 rai and 6,554 rai in 1988. The production in 1988 was 1,858 MT, valued at 25 million baht, a 20% increase over the 1987 production (Table 1).

6. Shrimp culture

Shrimp culture in fixed netcages has been practiced in Thailand since 1987. The species cultured at present is still strictly limited to the tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon. The initial size used for netcage stocking is PL50 at the stocking density of 100–200 per m². After 4 months, the shrimp attain an average weight of about 28 gr, with an average production of 1.5 kg/m². In 1990, fixed netcage culture covered an area of about 79,012 m² and production was 47 MT, valued at 10 million baht. Due to pollution constraints, the area utilized for the shrimp culture operations in fixed netcages has declined from 111,400 m² in 1989 to 79,012 m² in 1990 (Table 2).

III. CONCLUSION

Except for shrimp culture in fixed netcages, the culture area for seafarming commodities has expanded. Production of seafarming commodities, except that of blood cockle, has also increased. The overall increase in seafarming production was due to (1) expansion of culture area and (2) improvement in culture techniques and post-harvest technology.

Besides the seafarming commodities described above, the Department of Fisheries is in the process of taking up the culture of new seafarming commodities like abalone, pearl oyster, scallop and seaweeds, to increase seafarming production as envisaged in the National Development Plan. This venture to take up new culture systems has been made possible by transfer of technologies through the regional training programmes organized by the FAO/UNDP Regional Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project.

Table 1. Mollusc and estuarine fish farming in Thailand; total culture area, production and value during 1984–1989.

Table 2. Pen culture of tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) in Thailand; total culture area, production and value during 1987–1990.

Annex VIII-12

SEAFARMING STATUS IN VIETNAM

Vo Van Trac
Vice Minister
Ministry of Fisheries

I. INTRODUCTION

Vietnam has a coastline of 3,260 km with tidal, estuarine and mangrove areas covering over 300,000 ha, most of which are suitable for mariculture development.

The development of the seafarming industry in Vietnam is closely related to specific environmental features of the three ecological regions (northern, central and southern regions of the country) as well as on the existing socioeconomic characteristics.

Main species for seafarming include:

The major culture method practiced is polyculture of prawns, finfish, seaweeds in brackishwater ponds and lagoons. Monoculture is also practiced for some species in specific localities.

II. MAIN CULTURED SPECIES

Shrimp and Prawns

The main species of shrimp and prawn are Penaeus monodon, P. merguiensis, Metapenaeus ensis and Macrobrachium rosenbergii. During the past years satisfactory development has been attained. The main culture method remains the traditional extensive aquaculture which, although it has been improved, still yields low outputs (100–150 kg/ha, 400–600 kg/ha, 250–300 kg/ha in the northern, central and southern regions of the country, respectively). Semiintensive culture (yielding 1–1.5 tonnes/ha/year) and intensive culture (yielding 4–10 tonnes/ha/year) have been tried in some locations. Shrimp fry are collected from the wild while, in recent years, fry of P. monodon, P. merguiensis, and Macrobrachium rosenbergii have been increasingly supplied by hatchery operations. At present there are more than 100 state-run, cooperative and private shrimp hatcheries of large (10–20 million P15/year/hatchery), medium (3–5 million P15/year/hatchery) and small size. In 1990 over 100 million fry were produced. The area under shrimp culture in 1990 was approximately 170 thousand ha which yielded about 37,000 tonnes of shrimp. However, the amount of fry produced does not yet meet the needs of the culture sector of the industry.

With regard to feed development, some studies on artificial feeds have been carried out and the results applied in the production of shrimp feed for the various rearing and grow-out stages. The potential for shrimp culture development in Vietnam is still great, as large coastal brackishwater areas remain unexploited.

Initial studies have been carried out on artificial spawning of P. semisulcatus, P. japonicus and P. orientalis spp. Shrimp diseases, prophylactics and treatment have been studied on a limited level.

Crab and Fish

Recently Vietnam has been trying to culture marine crab in the provinces of Hai Phong, Quang Ninh and Hue as well as in the south of the country by using the pond and pen culture techniques. Trials have also been made in farming several species of grouper, seabass, mullet and milkfish. The seed for all the above species are collected from the wild.

Molluscs

Vietnam is one of the Southeast Asian countries which has favorable conditions for mollusc culture, such as abalone, mussel, scallop, cockles, and oyster. Experiments and studies have been carried out on pearl oyster culture and encouraging results have been obtained. Plans aim at studying the culture techniques and conservation methods of the above molluscan species, as well as further improving culture technology for pearl oyster.

Seaweed

The main species include Gracilaria verrucosa (which is being cultured), Sargassum and Porphyra. At present, seaweed cultivation and processing are in the development stage. The main culture technique used is the bottom pond culture method which yields an average of 0.5–0.7 tonnes dry weight/ha/year. Total production of dried seaweed at present is about 900 tonnes/year. Farming models for the production of 2 and 3–4 tonnes of dried seaweed per hectare per year have been established. The main method used in seaweed culture still remains the extensive one, practiced in the coastal provinces from Quang Ninh to Thuan Hai.

The latest available data show that Vietnam has about 4,000–5,000 ha where seaweed spp. are distributed and that can be used for seafarming. There are also about 10,000 ha of brackishwater grounds possible for seaweed cultivation in the northern and the central regions. Seaweed harvested from nature and from the culture areas are used partly for processing of agar and alginate, partly for export to some Asian countries, and partly for food.

Others

Vietnam has other potential seafarming organisms such as sea cucumber, green turtle and hawkskin turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate) for which the Seafarming Programme has set up the policy to carry out studies on their culture and conservation.

III. DISEASES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Environmental issues and fish diseases, especially the ones affecting shrimp, have been studies, but still at a very limited extent due to lack and shortage of professional staff, facilities and necessary equipment. These particular aspects needs strengthening through international assistance and regional collaboration.

IV. SEAFARMING RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

In order to effectively promote and develop seafarming activities as means of increasing foreign exchange earnings, creating employment and generating income for the farmers, the Government of Vietnam has enacted:

• Laws on the conservation and development of fishery resources.

• Policy incentives to seafarming development (such as tax exemption for the first years of operation; priority in providing materials, equipment and marketing of products, etc.)

• A policy to mobilize funding resources, including private ones, for the development of the industry.

The Government simultaneously takes care of setting up a network for research work, dissemination of scientific-technical knowledge and technical guidance for farmers.

In general, Vietnam still has much possibilities for the expansion of mariculture. In the forthcoming years the Seafarming Programme will concentrate on applied research in seed production of some commercial species, culture techniques, diagnosis and treatment of fish diseases, appropriate culture methods and measures on conservation and reproduction of marine resources.

V. COOPERATION WITH THE REGIONAL SEAFARMING PROJECT IN THE YEAR 1991

The areas in which Vietnam wishes to be assisted by the Seafarming project are the following:

1. Environmental and disease aspects of cultured species:

   To study some frequently occurring diseases in cultured shrimp from the larval stages to the marketable size. The studies should concentrate on environmental factors causing the diseases, symptoms, classification of pathogens, and treatment of diseases.

2. Further complete the country seafarming Atlas. Vietnam intends to engage in the collection of data and information on the following species:

   a)	Shrimp	:	-	P. orientalis
   			-	P. japonicus
   			-	Metapenaeus ensis
   			-	Spinullaris spp.
   			-	Macrobrachium rosenbergii
   b)	Finfish	:	-	Lates calcarifer
   			-	Mugil cephalus
   			-	Sparus auratus
   			-	Chanos chanos
   c)	Molluscs	:	-	Pinctada margaritifera
   			-	Pinna strangois
   			-	Arca granosa
   			-	Chlamys nobilis
   			-	Mytilus smagardinus
   			-	Haliotis gigantis
   d)	Seaweed	:	-	Gracilaria blodgettii
   			-	Porphyra crispata
   			-	Gelidium divaricatum
   			-	Sargassum carpophyllum

   
   

3. To send technicians to training courses on culture of sea cucumber and scallop.

4. Assistance in providing lecturers and equipment for organizing 2 in-country training courses for Vietnamese technicians and farmers on shrimp and seaweed culture techniques.

5. Assist in granting some equipment and materials for the performance of the above mentioned activities:

   • Photomicroscope OLYMPUS-BH, magnifying capacity 10×100 & 12.5×100 (1 unit).

   • Refractometer (salinometer) (3 pcs).

   • pH meter (2 pcs).

   • CO₂ content meter (in water and in air) (1 pcs).

   • Oxygenmeter (-ditto) (1 pcs)

   • Autoclave 150–200 liters (1 pcs)

   • Ultra-violet sterilizing unit (2 sets)

   • Equipment and devices for microorganisms culture (2 sets).

   • Specific chemicals for shrimp disease treatment.

   • Chemicals for microorganisms culture.

   • Papers on various aspects of shrimp, fish, and crab diseases.

   • Photocopier (1 unit).

   • Diesel air compressor, YANMAR 3–6 HP (2 unit).

   • Pressing machine for pellet feed making (1 unit).

   • Plastic tanks 500–1,000 liters (10 pcs).