4. Other Species

4.1. Acacia mearnsii and A. auriculiformis
4.2. Araucaria angustifolia and A. cunninghamii
4.3. Casuarina equisetifolia
4.4. Cordia alliadora
4.5. Cupressus lusitanica
4.6. Dalbergia sissoo
4.7. Gmelina arborea
4.8. Leucaena spp
4.9. Swietenia macrophylla
4.10. Tectona grandis
4.11. Terminalia ivorensis and T. superba

4.1. Acacia mearnsii and A. auriculiformis

In South Africa A. mearnsii is planted as a dual-purpose crop for timber and tanbark. The average productivity is 12 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ (Du Toit et al. 1998). In Indonesia, short rotations of 7-10 years or less, are the most economical. This produces MAIs of 10-25 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1 (National Academic of Sciences 1980). In Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 100,000-140,000 ha of 7 years-old stands produce 160 m³ of piled wood for cellulose, 20 m³ piled wood for firewood and 16 tonnes of green bark for tannin (personal communication, A. Higa, Brazil).

A. auriculiformis occurs naturally in humid areas of Australia, Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. A MAI of 15-20 m³ ha-¹ at 10-12 years can be expected from A. auriculiformis plantations under favourable conditions but production is lower on infertile soils where there is a prolonged dry season. Selection of suitable provenances can increase plantation productivity (Pinyopusarerk 1990). In humid, fertile areas of Indonesia and Malaysia, MAI are 17-20 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1 on rotations of 10-12 years; on poor soils this reduces to 10 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹. However, in semiarid West Bengal on shallow soils, yields were only 5 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ at the 15th year (National Academic of Sciences 1980).

4.2. Araucaria angustifolia and A. cunninghamii

The natural range of A. angustifolia is concentrated in the three southernmost Brazilian states of Paraná, S. Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul (Fähser 1981, Lamprecht 1990). A. angustifolia is an economically valuable tree species with even the first thinnings yielding marketable wood. In plantations with nutrient-rich, well-drained soils MAIs of 20 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1 have found; a typical range is from 8-24 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1 (Appendix 1). According to Hosokawa (1976), the rotation period for maximum yield in terms of volume is 35-40 years, but at least 90 years for maximum yield in term of value. Yield tables suggested that the MAI occurs at about year 20 regardless of site (Heinsdijk 1972). In Brazilian plantations, with 40-year rotations and increments of between 6 and 20 m³ ha-¹, 5 thinnings are carried out at ages 10, 13, 16, 20 and 25 years (Nock 1981, Lamprecht 1990).

Wood (cited in Burley and Wood 1976) lists cases where the MAI was over 45 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1 for plantation grown A. cunninghamii (Lamprecht 1990). However, typically growth rates are from 10-18 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1 (Appendix 1).

4.3. Casuarina equisetifolia

C. equisetifolia occurs naturally in coastal areas of Australia. It is cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics, especially in coastal and semiarid regions, but also in mountainous zones (Lamprecht 1990). On favourable sites, C. equisetifolia can yield MAIs of 15 m³ ha^-1 at 10 years (Pinyopusarerk and House 1993). Height growth tapers off when the trees are 7 year old, and volume increments at about 20 years (Table 8). While trees can attain ages of 40-50 years, rotations of 8-15 years are used for production of woodfuel (Lamprecht 1990). Depending on site quality, a MAI of 6-20 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1 can be expected (Appendix 1, Table 9).

Table 9. Reported MAIs for Casuarina equisetifolia.

Country	Age (years)	Height (m)	D. b. h. (cm)	MAI (m³ ha-1 yr-1)	Reference
Asia	5	7-10	6-10	3-4	Lamprecht (1990)
	10	13-15	12-15	5-6
	15	17-19	20-25	6-8
	20	21-23	30-40	7-10
	25	24-28	40-45	7-10
Southern China	10-15*	-	-	4-5	Turnbull (1983)
Columbia	3	-	-	8	Newman (1981)
West Bengal, India	12-15*	-	-	11	Ray (1971)

* Rotation age

4.4. Cordia alliadora

C. alliadora occurs widely in Latin America, from 25°N in Central Mexico to 25°S in the Argentine provinces of Misiones. It is primarily cultivated within its native range, but is also grown in Mauritius, Nigeria and Sierra Leone (Lamprecht 1990). C. alliadora produces a highly marketable wood (Lamprecht 1990).

This species also thrives well in associations with cocoa. At age 15 years and 180 stems per hectare a standing volume of 308 m³ ha-¹ at Siquirres, Costa Rica (CATIE 1979). The usual MAI is 10-20 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1 (Appendix 1).

4.5. Cupressus lusitanica

C. lusitanica is native to Central America extending southwards from 21°N, encompassing Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras. Outside its native range, it is grown extensively in Spain, Portugal, southern and eastern Africa, and in South America (Lamprecht 1990). On 40-year rotations the MAI is usually 8-15 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1, although the range of increments is greater than this (Appendix 1). In southern and eastern Africa the final yield is approx. 350-560 m³ ha-¹ (plus about 150 m³ from thinnings) (Lamprecht 1999).

Table 10. Reported MAIs for Cupressus lusitanica.

Country	Age (years)	MAI (m³ ha-¹ yr-¹)	Reference
Sao Paulo, Brazil	-	24.5	Soares (1973)
Africa	-	6.8-20	Soares (1973)
Costa Rica	-	21.6-23.6	Alfonso et al. (1965)
Costa Rica	15	25	Bucarey (1967)
	20	23
	30	23
	35	23
	40	22

Bucarey (1967) estimated mean annual volume increments of 22 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹, under Costa Rican conditions, with extraordinary values of up to 41 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹. Furthermore, MAI was slightly higher at age 15 years than at ages 20, 30, 35 and 40 years (Table 10).

Generally under good conditions the MAI for C. lusitanica should reach 20 - 30 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹. Lower figures indicate unsuitable sites, poor genotypes, or inadequate management. Chaves and Fonseca (1991) suggest that a well-managed stand should achieve increments higher than 30 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹.

4.6. Dalbergia sissoo

D. sissoo is planted in many parts of India and Pakistan and shows promising results, with irrigation, in the Sudan. It has been less successful in Ghana, northern Nigeria, northern Cameroon, and Togo; however, it is being increasingly planted as a street tree in southern Florida. There are experimental forestry plantings in Puerto Rico, the West African Sahel, South America, and the Middle East (National Academy of Sciences 1983).

Yield on 10 year rotations can reach 9-15 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ but lower yields are more typical (Appendix 1). Growth is strongly dependent on soil conditions.

4.7. Gmelina arborea

Gmelina arborea is native to the Indian subcontinent, southern China, Southeast Asia and the Philippines. G. arborea plantations have been established throughout the humid tropics where it only attains high MAI of 20-25 m³ ha-¹ on fresh, well-drained, fertile soils (Lamprecht 1990). Rotations of 5-8 years seem most common; MAI is usually between 12 and 50 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1 (Appendix 1).

Experiences from three South American countries emphasise the wide range of growth rates. In Brazil, G. arborea was reported to be yielding 38 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ on a 10-year rotation. In Colombia total volume production was 27.5 m³ ha-¹ at 3 years (Newman 1981). In Costa Rica MAI ranges between 7.1 and 55 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ (Vásquez and Ugalde 1994).

In G. arborea plantations at Ston Forestal,Costa Rica, Zeaser (1999) used permanent plot data to study the growth dynamics of the species. The maximum MAI in these unthinned stands occurred about age 5 (Class 1A, 1, 2 and 3) or 6 (Class 4) years (Table 11). This is in contrast to a study in the Philippines where the MAI was still increasing at age 8 years (Nanagas and Serna (1970). The MAI, for the Costa Rica study, of site quality 1A and 1 converged after 7 years while the lower site qualities (Sites 3 and 4) apparently converged after year 8 (Table 11). This affect was attributed to reducing basal area growth, at high stockings, occurring earlier on more fertile sites. Total chipwood and sawlog volumes at age 8 years on good sites are about double those on poor sites (Table 11).

Table 11. Effect of site on merchantable volumes at age 8 years and MAI, by age, for G. arborea in Costa Rica.

Age (year)	Class 1A	Class 1	Class 2	Class 3	Class 4
	MAI (m3 ha-1 yr-1)
2	49.8	48.3	30.8	23.9	10.0
3	56.3	51.5	36.8	30.7	17.1
4	59.9	53.2	40.8	34.7	22.0
5	60.6	53.4	42.8	35.9	24.7
6	58.6	52.1	42.9	34.3	25.2
7	53.7	49.2	41.1	30.0	23.5
8	45.9	44.9	37.2	22.9	19.6
	Pulpwood volume (m3 ha-1)
8	385	372	319	225	173
	Sawlog volume (m3 ha-1)
8	183	170	156	129	78

Source: Zeaser (1999).

4.8. Leucaena spp

Leucaena originated in tropical Latin America, probably in Mexico. It was introduced very early on (16 to18th century) to the Pacific islands, the Philippines, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia and East and West Africa (Lamprecht 1990).

More than 100 varieties are known. According to the National Academy of Sciences (1977), these can be assigned to 3 groups:

a) Hawaiian group;
b) Salvadoran group;
c) Peruvian group.

4.9. Swietenia macrophylla

The natural habitat of S. macrophylla is between 20° N and 18° S, extending from the Yucatan in Mexico, across Central America, Colombia and Venezuela to the western Amazonian lowlands in Ecuador, Peru, Brazil and Bolivia. Today it is cultivated throughout the tropics on 40-60 year rotations with a likely MAI of 7-30 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1 (Appendix 1). On the Antilles a MAI of 15-20 m³ ha^-1 yr^-1 have been achieved with 40-50 year rotations (Lamprecht 1990).

Pure mahogany plantations in Indonesia reach a maximum MAI of 18 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ in 20 years on the best sites; on poor sites, the maximum MAI of 13 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ may not be achieved until 50 years. Plantations in Martinique have a maximum MAI of over 30 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ on the best sites (Tiller 1995), although 14-25 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ are more usual. Plantations in neighbouring Guadeloupe are less productive, with the best giving 17 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ over the first 25 years (Soubieux 1983, Mayhew and Newton 1998).

4.10. Tectona grandis

The natural distribution of Teak (T. grandis) is in South and Southeast Asia. Examples from a range of countries are given in Table 12.

Table 12. Examples of the MAI for Tectona grandis growing in different countries.

Country	Age (years)	MAI (m³ ha-¹ yr-¹)	Reference
India	60-80	4-8*	Evans (1992)
Costa Rica	4-8	5-27	Vázquez and Ugalde (1994)
Guanacaste, Costa Rica	21	15-20	Lamprecht (1990)
Java	80	2-15	Wadsworth (1997)

* Possible range in growth rates is considerably larger than this.

As in parts of Asia there are very few well-managed teak plantations in Central America and the Caribbean. The aim should be to obtain at least 8 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ which is feasible on all suitable sites (Keogh 1996).

4.11. Terminalia ivorensis and T. superba

The range of T. ivorensis is smaller than T. superba being confined to 4-10° N, between Guinea and Cameroon. The natural distribution of T. superba stretches from Sierra Leone, through Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroons and well inland into the Central African Republic and the Congo (Lamprecht 1990, Fenton et al. 1977).

Few growth and yield data have been published. The average MAI of T. ivorensis have been reported as 8-17 m³ ha-¹ yr-¹, and T. superba between 10 and 14c[1] m³ ha-¹ yr-¹ (Wadsworth 1997; Appendix 1).