THE CHANGE DRIVERS

The Zambian economy has had serious problems since the early 1980s. From the independence time, 1964, the economy had become increasingly centralised, with the public sector and parastatal companies forming the backbone of production and growth. National prosperity was almost entirely dependent on copper.

Poor economic management and falling world prices of copper has led to the decline in the industry over the last 25 years, which has a knock-on effect on the national economy. Government, during this period, began to borrow to finance public expenditure, notably the subsidisation of maize production and consumption.

For the last 10 years, the Government has tried to restructure the economy through a series of adjustment programmes. Subsidies have been discontinued and state owned enterprises privatised.

However, economic reforms bring certain hardships, many of which are shouldered by the poor.

Deforestation and its associated environmental problems are a threat to ecosystem conservation, and hinder socio-economic development. This section looks at key aspects and trends on poverty, population growth, economic growth and the environment.

Poverty

Poverty in Zambia is wide spread. According to the World Bank report (1994a), about 68% of the population live in households where the income is not sufficient to meet the basic needs.

Rural poverty is more wide spread than urban poverty as illustrated in the following table which is adopted from the ZFAP, Volume II, (1998).

Table 1: The Poverty Groups of Zambia (% of Population)

The stringent economic programme being implemented by the Government focuses on liberalisation and reduced State interference in the economy. This has been accompanied by reduced spending on the social services and cost sharing in the health and education services. The impact of these reforms has been harsh on the income, health and education of the poor.

The prevalence of poverty in rural areas has implications for rural development programmes such as agriculture and forestry. Poverty is greatest in Western and North-Western Provinces, followed by Eastern, Luapula and Northern Provinces although the potential for forestry-led rural development exists in these Provinces.

In Zambia, poverty has been exacerbated by high population growth, environmental degradation and the HIV/AIDS. These issues have delayed the prospects for poverty reduction by overburdening the social services, increasing the number of dependants for each productive person, and reducing the assets of future generations.

Population growth

The population of Zambia is ever on the increase with an estimated growth rate of about 3.1% per annum. Between 1980 and 1990, the population increased from 5.7 million to 7.8 million people. The table below summarises the key information.

Table 2: Some Attributes of the Zambian Population

The 1990 population figure was more than double the 3.4 million of the year 1963. By 1995, the population was estimated at 9.3 million. Dramatic increases are expected to continue.

The fertility rate at 6.7 per woman is still higher than the African average of 6.3. The crude death rate declined from 19.7 in 1969 to 14.0 per 1,000 persons in 1990.

High levels of fertility have resulted in the youthfulness of the Zambian population. In 1995, 46% of the population was under the age of 15 years.

The reduction in life expectancy from 51 years in 1980 to 46 years in 1990 reflects the HIV/AIDS epidemic, and the generally impoverished environment.

The population growth rate presents challenges to future developments. More than 42% of the population lived in urban areas in 1990. The over concentration of population in urban areas affects the provision of social services, and has serious repercussions on the environment, and forestry in particular.

The youthfulness of the country’s population means that there will be a growth in numbers of households as they reach the marrying age. This, in turn, implies increased demand for forest products and services in the country.

There is a two -way link between economic growth and environmental degradation. Deforestation and degradation have often been the result of mismanagement for short term and narrow gains. Policies promoting economic growth should encompass improved environmental management. Poor management of natural resources, especially forests, will constrain the development process, as short-term benefits become exhausted

The most pressing environmental problems in the forest sector of Zambia are deforestation and forest degradation, soil erosion and fertility loss, watershed degradation, and loss of biodiversity.

The contribution of the forestry sector to the national economy has been grossly undervalued. This is simply because there are few statistics on the forestry-based informal and formal sector activities. In addition to this, wood and wood-based products are classified under manufacturing leading to high distortion of the true contribution of the forestry sector to national economic development and gross domestic product in particular.

Most important of all, the traditional system of measuring economic growth by GDP fails to take into account the change of the natural capital of the country. A " Green GDP " would take into consideration the actual value of the forest exploited in a given year.

According to the available information, the forest sector contribution to the national economy was lower than any other sector between 1989 and 1993, as illustrated in the table below.

Table 3: Structure of the Zambian Economy based on the average GDP (US$ Million)

The Zambian economy has been registering negative growth rates since 1992. Compared to the rest of the economy, the performance of the forest sector shows a consistent but slow progression. In terms of growth, the forest sector contribution to GDP increased from US$ 15,200 in 1991 to US$ 18,500 in 1995

The first forestry policy for Zambia was put in place in 1965. This policy was very restrictive, as it did not provide for a broad-based participatory approach to forest management and production that takes account of other sectors and stakeholders. Instead, all control of forest ownership, planning and management was given to the Central Government through the Forest Department. Being exclusive, it did not spell out roles and responsibilities for Local Authorities and communities in the management and use of the forest resources. The policy was also silent on gender issues, and as a result, it perpetuated the gross imbalance that exists between men and women with regard to matters of ownership, access, control, derivation of benefits, constraints and impacts of forest resources development and depletion.

In order to take care of the interest of all stakeholders, a new forestry policy has been formulated with effect from 1998. This policy has the objective of ensuring rational and sustainable protection, management, production and utilisation of the forest resources. It recognises the need for employing broad-based participatory approaches to forestry sector development. The policy also seeks that all stakeholders are given recognition, and are active participants in the management and utilisation of the forest resources. Further, the policy pays closer attention to forests outside the protected or gazetted forest estates.

The new policy is based on the following principles:

Trees are important to environmental preservation, ecosystem conservation and sustainable socio-economic development ;

There is an inseparable relationship between humans, trees and land ;

There is need to create responsible partnerships, with gender equity, among stakeholders in forestry activities, to ensure the permanence and stability of forests ;

There is need to combine scientific and indigenous knowledge in the management and utilisation of the forest resources ; and

There is need for enhanced private sector participation in forestry development.

The policy also addresses itself to four main areas of concern, namely:

Resource management and development ;

Resource utilisation ;

Capacity building ;

Gender equity.

The Policy objectives and strategies are set out in each area being addressed. This is done against a background of limitations to ensure that constraints to success are addressed.

Resource management and development

The major areas being addressed b y the Policy under this are the:

Enhancement of forest resources management

To be effective, a participatory forest management approach will be used by making the NGOs and other stakeholders become partners with Government agencies in devising, implementing and monitoring local forest resource management plans. The joint management of local forests will be enriched by the integration of the indigenous and scientific knowledge.

Security of the forest estates

The Policy will help ensure that sufficient forest reserves exist for the protection of forests, water and soil resources. Stakeholders will be identified and involved in the process of establishing New Forest reserves by following clearly defined criteria, purpose and objectives.

Expansion of plantations

Past neglect of the sound plantation management has created a future shortage of plantation round wood. Early action to prevent this shortage from being prolonged is being supported by the new Policy. Ideally, plantations will be established and managed by the Private Sector including individual farmers.

Ecosystem conservation

The Policy provides for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems with unique species of flora and fauna, as this is essential for the maintenance of ecological and environmental balance and sustainability.

Agro-forestry

Clearing land for agricultural expansion is the major cause of deforestation in Zambia. The Policy supports the creation of closer links between agriculture and forestry, as most rural people are peasant farmers. Agro-forestry programmes based on both scientific and indigenous knowledge can meet wood needs as well as enhance agricultural productivity.

Forestry research and extension

Success in developing the forest sector depends on effective forestry extension and research services. The new Policy will promote these services which will:

be demand driven ;

include the private sector ;

include forest products and processing ;

reflect the need for community participation.

Resource utilisation

Forests are a source of raw materials for wood-based industries, of wood-fuel and of non-wood products. The new Policy ensures that the various uses are carried out rationally and sustainably. The Policy also supports the development of a pricing mechanism for forest products that incorporates issues such as cost and true economic value as well as externalities such as environmental standards.

Wood industries will be promoted to help the forest sector contribute more significantly to socio-economic development of the country through improved technology and management that will produce high quality finished and semi-finished wood and non-wood forest products for both the local and export markets.

The dependence on wood-fuel by most households increases pressure on the forests while alternative energy sources are not immediately available. The new Policy has put emphasis on the sustainable management of the charcoal industry through the promotion of good woodland management, and supporting the National Policy on Wood-fuel as embodied in the National Energy Policy of 1994.

Capacity building

Capacity building is essential to the development of the forest sector through the human resource development as well as institutional and structural reform. The sector needs educated and trained personnel - both foresters and stakeholders - for long-term success and in order to create a better understanding of the value of forests, the meaning of sustainability and approaches to good forest management.

The new Policy has, therefore, put emphasis on the need to have strong institutional and legal framework that will be based on having right linkages, capacities and incentives to deliver, and the implementation of sustainable forest management under the prevailing socio-economic conditions.

Gender equity

An understanding of different gender roles in forest management and utilisation is crucial for sustainability. The new Policy has recognised the need to integrate gender issues in order to correct the imbalance in gender participation in forestry activities through the recognition of the following issues:

Decision making

Women will be deliberately involved in decision making at all levels and stages of forestry project identification, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

Extension

The number of women extension workers will be increased as they are generally better suited to dealing with female members of the community, who are the main users of forest resources at household level.

Training

The number of women admitted to both the technical and professional training will be increased, as females will be encouraged to enrol.

Women’s Organisations

Women’s Organisations at both national and grass-root levels will be encouraged to incorporate forestry management in their activities.

Funding

Projects that target women in forestry, including agro-forestry, woodlots, conservation, wood and non-wood forest industries will be earmarked for funding.

The forest sector has several linkages with other institutions whose activities may be based, or to a large extent rely, on goods and services provided by forest resources. In order to implement the measures that are outlined in the new policy, it has bee recognised that there will be need for effecting viable institutional reforms. The policy has, therefore, outlined the roles of the stakeholders as follows:

The role of the Government will be to formulate and review forest policy and co-ordinate its implementation. The Government shall also encourage the establishment of plantations and proper management of indigenous forests and provide a conducive environment for stakeholder participation.

The Ministry will have the overall responsibility for forest resources development.

The Commission will be established to take over the functions of the Forestry Department.

The Commission will also be responsible for co-ordination, implementation and enforcement of rules and regulations pertaining to forestry development.

The role of the Local Government shall be to formulate bye-laws, enforce them and facilitate proper and smooth administration of forest estates, in conformity with the forestry policy and existing legal framework.

It shall also be involved in setting aside land for forestry purposes and participate in the implementation of the Joint Forest Management.

The Traditional Leaders shall be involved in the administration and management of forest estates within the area of their jurisdiction.

They shall also encourage the setting aside of land for forestry purposes and advise Government on policy formulation and implementation as well as facilitate local community participation in the management and utilisation of forest resources.

The Political Leadership shall be responsible for resource mobilisation, interpretation and implementation of Government policy and legislation.

The Local Communities including the Community Based Organisations shall advice Government on policy formulation and implementation.

They shall be the key actors in the planning and management of forests at local levels.

They shall also be the implementers and determinants of the species and technologies to be used in community based forestry plantation establishment and management.

The Traditional Healers shall participate in Joint Forest Management and foster sustainable utilisation, and provide indigenous knowledge on medicinal plant species for the conservation of biodiversity.

Individuals and Organisations that are interested in business transactions that are related to forest estate management shall be partners in forestry development activities and will be expected to build capacity by providing financial resources for forest estate management and utilisation.

These shall, together with Community Based Organisations, be partners in forestry development and management.

They shall also be supportive in popularising appropriate forestry technologies, build capacity and provide extension services.

These Institutions shall provide knowledge and appropriate forestry management practices.

These shall be partners in forestry development and shall be facilitators in building capacity and provision of finances.

In order for the new policy to be effective, Zambia has also managed to put in place the new Forests Act:- the Forests Act No. 7 of 1999, Cap. 199 of the Laws of Zambia – that supports the implementation of the new Forestry Policy.

The new Act has replaced the Forests Act of 1973 which emphasised the policing role of the Forest Department, and the exclusion or restriction of communities. This Act did not recognise the need for a participatory approach to the establishment and management of forest reserves, which have been " fenced off " from the adjacent communities as a means of preventing encroachment. This Act also took away all private ownership rights of trees, even where title to land was held. The Act also did not give rights, obligations and responsibilities to local communities and landowners.

This new Act advocates for the following:

Establishment of the Zambia Forestry Commission and defining its functions ;

Establishment of the National Forests, Local Forests and Joint Forest Management areas ;

Participation of the local communities, traditional institutions, non-governmental organisations and other stakeholders in sustainable forest management ;

Conservation and use of forests and trees for the sustainable management of forest ecosystems and biological diversity ; and

Implementation of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Water Fowl Habitant, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and / or Desertification, particularly in Africa.

Agro-ecological zones

Zambia is divided into four broad agro-ecological regions and zones, based mainly on rainfall, altitude, climate, soils and suitability to crops, as shown in Table 2.4.1.

These regions are briefly described as follows:

This is found in the Luangwa-Zambezi Rift Valley (LZRV), and consists the low rainfall (semi-arid), low altitude, hot and dry areas.

In this region, the climate is hot and dry and the vegetation type is the Mopane or Miombo Woodland. The farming system is largely hand-hoe based. Trees are grown around homestead gardens for fruit production, fuelwood and pole production but rarely integrated with farming systems.

This region consists of a sub-region of the medium rainfall plateau including main farming areas on the plateau of Central, Eastern and Southern Provinces.

In this region, the farming systems are characterised by open farming, with animals allowed to move freely on fields in the dry season. This poses a serious constraint to on-farm tree planting. The main vegetation type is the Miombo and Acacia Woodland.

The region suffers low soil fertility, dry season fodder shortage for livestock, and fuelwood shortage caused by agricultural expansion leading to extensive bush clearing and deforestation.

In many parts of this region substantial encroachment of protected forest areas is common. Charcoal production has contributed to the degradation of woodlands and bush-lands.

This relate to the sub-region of the medium rainfall plateau comprising the Kalahari

(Barotse) sand plateau and the Zambezi flood plains.

In this Region, the soils are good for growing trees such s the Cashew nuts and Mango. The main vegetation type is the Kalahari and Miombo Woodland, and swamp vegetation. The main crops grown are cassava and millet. Cattle’s farming is a central part of rural life. Farm forestry development faces the problem of finding species suitable for tree establishment.

This consists of the Northern High Rainfall Plateau. The farming systems of this region are largely hoe-based. The vegetation type is the wet Miombo Woodland. A form of shifting cultivation, known as the Chitemene is practised traditionally. In this type of cultivation, trees are loped and branches burned to add potash and minerals to the soil.

Tree growing usually involving exotic trees and fruit trees is carried out on farms, forming part of the traditional perennial crop cultivation technology.

Table 2.4.1: Agro-Ecological Regions of Zambia

The farming systems of Zambia vary between agro-ecological zones. As a result, tree-growing practices incorporated in these farming systems also differ considerably between regions.

The shifting cultivation systems are practised in many areas of the country mainly those with relatively low population densities and fragile low fertility soils. This system, also known as the Slash and Burn involves the clearing of a small piece of land by felling and burning the forest vegetation. During the first few years, farmers obtain excellent crops on the cleared land, the ashes of the burnt vegetation serving as fertiliser, and in the case of acid soils, also helping to raise the pH significantly.

However, after a period of about 2-10 years, the soils become exhausted, and the farmer clears another piece of forest, abandoning the first area to bush fallow which later is invaded by trees if sound forest management practices are followed. This farming system involves extensive cultivation practices with uncontrolled burning for land clearing and hunting. Environmental risks are present and the increasing population threatens the sustainability of shifting cultivation.

Agricultural performance

Zambia’s agriculture is characterised by a contrast in investment and profitability between commercial and subsistence farming. Large-scale commercial farms are concentrated along the central line of rail, while subsistence farming is distributed throughout he country. In the commercial sector, high levels of inputs are used. Maize is the main crop in both sectors.

Agricultural performance has generally been poor in the country as the agricultural growth rate of 3.5% is far below the potential. Zambia has a grossly under-utilised agricultural resources base.

While the northern region practices shifting cultivation, the drier south uses more draft animal power to produce millet and sorghum, which are more tolerant of low rainfall than maize. Over-grazing, soil erosion, soil and water loss, and saltation of water reservoirs are the key environmental hazards.

The major constraint to smallholder production includes inadequate infrastructure, maize monoculture of unsuitable varieties and use of poor husbandry techniques.

In the light of sector liberalisation, other issues have also emerged such as prohibitive transport costs, high input prices, lack of land tenure security which makes credit inaccessible, and the insolvency of the traditional rural financial institutions which has left a gap in small farmer credit supply.

Livestock production is dominated by cattle raising with cattle accounting for about 80 % of total livestock, excluding poultry. Approximately, 80% of cattle are raised in the traditional sector, while the commercial ranching accounts for 20%. Estimate of livestock populations vary significantly from year to year.

Most of the national herd of 3.9 million depends on the natural grassland and browse for feed, although commercial herd is given supplementary feeds. Pressure on the rangeland resources is high especially in communal grazing areas.

Within the subsistence economy, men and women traditionally perform different tasks. Women are the main collectors of fuel-wood, which include woody biomass and occasionally animal dung or crop residues. Therefore, any initiatives by the household to grow trees on-farm and homestead would largely benefit women and youth as wood-fuel conservation measures.

Tree planting could assist in two respects by preventing soil erosion and land degradation. Secondly, the increased use of multi-purpose tree species would help increase agricultural yields through enhancing soil fertility and use as fodder for animals.

The consequences of poor agricultural performance have been low economic growth, poor standards of nutrition, unnecessary food imports, vulnerability to drought and degradation of the environment.

An improvement in productivity is a pre-requisite for agricultural and economic growth. To achieve this, farmers must adopt improved land and animal husbandry practices. Tree growing is an essential part of these improvements. There are various practices available for introducing trees into farming systems of Zambia such as homestead tree planting, farm woodlot, farm boundary tree planting, improved fallow, hedgerow inter-cropping, fodder banks and wind-breaks.

Forest products from the informal sector are still widely available. Most households have no alternative to firewood and charcoal. The increasing exploitation of trees for charcoal has contributed to deforestation. Planning for sustainable utilisation of wood-fuel is important.

In Zambia, the charcoal industry is more developed than the firewood market. The charcoal industry has a distinct form, and can, therefore, be the subject of intervention. Other possible areas of intervention include enhancing the wood supply resource base, and promoting household access to alternative energy sources.

Sources of household energy

In Zambia, households use four main types of fuel, namely firewood, charcoal, kerosene and electricity, table 2.5.1 refers.

Firewood and kerosene are mainly used in rural areas. The use of animal dung and crop residues is restricted to rural areas. Urban households mainly use charcoal, kerosene and electricity while firewood is used in lesser quantities.

Table 2.5.1: Contribution of different energy sources to household energy, 1990 to 1995

Electricity is widely used in medium and high cost urban residential areas. Very few rural households have access to electricity. Electricity is used for a variety of end-uses among which are lighting, cooking, space cooling and heating, ironing, refrigeration and powering various other appliances like television sets, radios, telephones and computers.

Wood-fuel demand

According to Kalumiana, (1996a), the most significant factor affecting wood-fuel demand in Zambia is population as most wood-fuel is consumed at household level.

Kalumiana (1997) reports that wood-fuel is the largest source of energy in Zambia, followed by petroleum, electricity and coal. Overall total energy consumption in the country exceeds 4.5 million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent (TOF) per annum, with each fuel contribution being as follows:

Wood-fuel 68%

Petroleum 14%

Electricity 12%

Coal 6%

Current levels of energy demand in Zambia can be satisfied and where-ever possible enhanced by ensuring sustainable regeneration of forests and also by providing alternatives to wood-fuel such as biogas, solar power, hydro-electricity and petroleum products like kerosene. However, these are high capital investment ventures and will need total Government commitment in terms of subsidies, tax alleviation, credits and any such measures that may assist both the urban and rural poor to access these alternative energy sources. Careful analyses and detailed research into alternative energy sources, appropriate conversion technology and use of wood by-products would, therefore, be inevitable if the energy requirements of the country are to be met equitably and sustainably, without incapacitating the forest and other ecosystems (life supporting systems) in the environment.