4.2 Country papers

Ing Try, Sao Vansereyvuth and Thay Somony: Small-scale fisheries management in Cambodia
Sebastian Mathew: Small-scale fisheries management in India: need for a paradigm shift
Victor P. H. Nikijuluw: Small-scale fisheries management in Indonesia
Mohd Taupek Mohd Nasir: Co-management of small-scale fisheries in Malaysia
Hla Win and Khin Maung Aye: Small-scale fisheries in Myanmar
Jonathan O. Dickson: Current status of small-scale fisheries in the Philippines
Jate Pimoljinda: Small-scale fisheries management in Thailand
Nguyen Long: Small-scale fisheries management in Viet Nam

Ing Try, Sao Vansereyvuth and Thay Somony: Small-scale fisheries management in Cambodia

Ing Try, Sao Vansereyvuth and Thay Somony
Fisheries Department, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Background

The fisheries sector in Cambodia plays a very important role for the national economy and food security. Before the 1970s, Cambodia’s fish production was regarded high with about 20 tonnes/km². This is reflected in a local proverb saying “where there is water there is fish”. Inland capture fisheries is more important for Cambodian people than marine fisheries. Catch figures show that 80 percent of fish production comes from inland fisheries. However, freshwater fisheries productivity has declined dramatically due to increasing population, growing pressure on natural resources and the ecosystem, e.g. agricultural activity encroachment and development, deforestation, overexploitation of the fisheries resources as well as hunting and collection of wildlife and other resources.

Fisheries management in 1970-75 seriously suffered from warfare; control of fishing activities was neglected. During the communist Khmer Rouge period (1975-79), collective management was commonplace throughout Cambodia; there was no private sector; all fishing grounds belonged to the collectivity and most fishing activities were small-scale. Since 1979, Thay (2001) reports that the fisheries resources and exploitation have been managed in different arrangements which can be summarized as below:

• Public fishing area (1979-82)

  The country was just rid of the Pol Pot regime and people could fish freely in all fishing domains (public fishing areas). Fisheries management was unknown and there was no fisheries department.

• Solidarity groups (1982-89)

  The Department of Fisheries was organized and the exploitation of fisheries resources was managed through solidarity groups called Krom Samaki.

• Fishing lot auction (1989-98)

  The fisheries laws was promulgated. The basis of the law was a modification and upgrading of the fisheries laws of 1965. The fishing activities in that period were divided into three categories:

• Large-scale fishing (fishing lots)

Fishing lots (loh nessaat) are concessions auctioned by the Cambodian government to the highest bidder for exclusive exploitation over a two-year period. This was one of the main instruments of government to generate revenue from the rent of fisheries resources. (Van Zalinge et al. 2000)

• Medium-scale fishing (dai fishing)

A dai is a kind of bag net or stationery trawl positioned in the river to capture fish migrating downstream. (Van Zalinge et al. 2000)

• Small-scale fisheries or family fishing

Family fishing and paddy field fisheries have open access and do not require a license, but gear is subject to certain restrictions on size and use. Access to fishing lots is limited to the closed season (June-September). (Van Zalinge et al. 2000)

This paper will:

• describe the current status of small-scale fisheries management;
• discuss experiences in implementing small-scale fisheries management in which legal adjustment and legal instruments, problems and constraints are further discussed; and
• recommend possible solutions for overcoming constraints facing small-scale fisheries management in Cambodia.

Current status of small-scale fisheries management

Importance of small-scale fisheries for the rural poor

More than 85 percent of the Cambodian people live in rural areas and agriculture and fisheries are their main protein suppliers and income-generating activities. Azimi et al. (2000, cited in Gum 2000) note that 15 percent of the population of Cambodia depend on the Tonle Sap fisheries for their livelihood. Gum (2000) concludes that access to common property resources, especially fisheries, represents an insurance against agricultural risks. Loss of access to fisheries resources will affect the livelihood, in particular, of the rural poor and those with limited access to agricultural land.

In this paper, small-scale fisheries are classified into:

- Small-scale fishing, defined as open access fishing, where fishermen do not require a license but fishing gear is subject to restrictions on size and use. Also, this refers to rural inhabitants who live in or near the fishing domain (fishing lots and public fishing areas). People who live in the fishing domain and fish year round are regarded as direct primary users/stakeholders; those who live outside the fishing domain and come to fish during the dry season are categorized as indirect primary users/stakeholders (based on FAO Siem Reap PRA in Fishing lots #3 and #6, 2001). According to Ahmed et al. (1998, quoted in van Zalinge et al., 2000), family fishing is estimated to produce at least 115 000 tonnes annually.

- Paddy field fisheries are also significant and important for rural dwellers that live far from the main fishing domain or the main river. Generally, farmers, beside rice cultivation, depend on paddy field fisheries resources such as fish, crabs, shrimps, frogs, beetles, snails, aquatic plants (morning glory, lotus and water lily) and so on as protein sources. Wet season rain-fed, lowland and deep-water rice ecosystems covered about 1.8 million ha in Cambodia in 1994-95 (Nesbitt 1997, quoted in van Zalinge et al. 2000). Paddy field fisheries production ranges from 25 to 62 kg/ha (Leelaptra, 1992; Gregory, 1997, cited in van Zalinge et al., 2000). With the range of 25-62 kg/ha and the total paddy field areas of 1.8 million ha, the annual paddy field fisheries production could be 50 000-100 000 tonnes. Gregory & Guttman (1997 cited in van Zalinge et al. 2000) state that surplus yields of aquatic animals and plants from the paddy fields are sold and provide significant supplemental income in some cases.

- Small-scale aquaculture started in 1993 in Svay Rieng and Prey Veng provinces and then expanded to Takeo and Kompong Speu provinces, with the initiatives of PADEK, SAO and AIT. Currently, the organizations involved in aquaculture development in Cambodia are AIT, MRC, PADEK, FAO Siem Reap, GTZ and others. In areas where paddy field fisheries have declined considerably, small-scale aquaculture is considered a good alternative fish protein source for rural poor people. (More information can be found in Kaing Khim’s thesis on the effects of small-scale aquaculture development practices in the Lower Mekong Delta, Cambodia, AIT, Bangkok).

Typical and common small-scale fishing gear is similar to middle-scale gear but for smaller sizes. Examples of small-scale fishing equipment are gillnets, traps, dip nets, cast nets, hooks and lines, tru, cylindrical bamboo trap (lop), plunge baskets (angruth), spears (snor) and others.

Underestimates of the past and current status of small-scale fisheries management

As already mentioned, small-scale fisheries contributes significantly to the livelihood of rural poor people in terms of protein source and income generation. However, the importance of small-scale fisheries was overlooked and underestimated by the central government and local authorities and even other institutions. The past government policy towards commercial fishing lot auctioning and agricultural production had negative effects on people depending on aquatic resources. The intensification and expansion of lot boundaries and the pressures exerted by lot owners and operators have affected an increasing number of small-scale fisherfolk in the local communities (Thay, 2001). Gregory and Guttman (1999, cited in Gum 2000) raised concern about the many efforts of the Cambodian government and development agencies to increase rice production with little appreciation of the importance of paddy field fisheries resources that are significantly used by rice farming families. Gum (2000, cited in Thay, 2001) has documented from many authors reliable information on the general issues of fisheries management during the period 1998-2000. The main issues include:

• the focus on revenue collection from the fishing lots rather than sustainable fisheries resource management or equitable rural development;
• conflicts between conservation and conversion of inundated forests into agricultural lands;
• growing numbers of short-term benefit seekers (local and outside people and fishermen, military and police);
• tension and conflicts between local people and lot owners over the resource use; and
• sublease of the total lot areas to private interests for exclusive exploitation.

In consideration of how the above issues were affecting the poor people’s livelihood, the government undertook a swift reform of fisheries management. The reform entailed the reshuffle of the high-level administration of the fisheries department and the provisional withdrawal of provincial fisheries inspection stations in all fishing lots throughout the country. Moreover, the request of local fisherfolk to reclaim their territory for public fishing areas was partly met by returning parts or the whole of fishing lots to the local communities. Fishing lots were recently handed over to local communities.

The challenges for all the parties involved, from government to fisherfolk, are to manage, develop, use and conserve in a sustainable manner the fishing areas released from fishing lots. The concepts of community fisheries or fisheries co-management have been introduced recently.

Experiences in implementing small-scale fisheries management

Historically, the main objective of fisheries management has been the conservation of fish stocks (King 1995). In order to ensure the long-term sustainable use of fisheries resources, the Department of Fisheries had tried its best to manage them. The fisheries laws was established in 1980 to manage and allocate these resources for earning income for the nation and providing the Cambodian people with protein-rich food in the form of fish. The law mostly dealt with passive management objectives, in which input control is the main management tool. For example, the law strongly prohibited all kinds of illegal fishing gear such as light fishing, electro-fishing and muro-ami (Ly, 1990). It also prohibited fishing in the closed season (fish spawning season). Fish sanctuaries in freshwater water systems were also closed during fishing season to commercial and medium-sized fisheries but not to small-scale fisheries. Clearing or cutting down inundated forests and coral mining was prohibited by the fisheries laws. Furthermore, the fisheries department has acquired its own fisheries inspectors and patrol boats to monitor fishing activities in Cambodian waters. Touch (1995) mentioned that the department tried to increase and promote fisheries facilities and human capacity to manage fisheries resources. However, the law is very weak and passive, and it will be necessary to carefully revise it in order to ensure adaptively and scientifically optimal catches without decreasing the stocks. The law is being revised by the Department of Fisheries in collaboration with the World Bank, which provides funding.

Legal adjustment and legal instruments

Small-scale fisheries have open access, do not require a license to fish and use smaller gear than the middle-scale fisheries operators. It can be done in floodplain areas, in fishing lots during the closed season and in paddy fields during the rainy season. Family fisheries are estimated to produce 160 000-250 000 tons annually in Cambodia (Deap et al., 1998).

An example is a cylindrical drum trap, a small-scale fishing gear with a length of less than 0.80 metre and 0.30 metre in diameter. If it is larger, it is classified as middle-scale fishing gear. The gear is made of bamboo sticks sewed together by wild strings and has a double entrance to prevent fish or other aquatic animals from escaping. It is used to catch aquatic fauna everywhere within the water system during the rainy season, in particular freshwater fish.

The Mekong River system is rich in biodiversity, particularly in fish species. Rinboth (1996) recorded about 500 species of fish within the system. However, fewer than 100 species have been caught and recorded around the Tonle Sap by large and medium-sized fishing gear. Nao et al. (1996) stated that there were some 280 fish species gaining access to the productive floodplain, into which huge quantities of fish migrate from the main rivers and floodplains of the Mekong River system.

Apart from fisheries, the Mekong River system has other resources such as inundated forest. Many species of fauna use the flooded forest and floodplain as feeding and nursing grounds. The spawning strategy of many fish species also ensures that eggs and larvae are swept into the floodplain area, which has plentiful food resources for both brood stock and larvae.

Problems and constraints of fisheries management

The richness of fisheries resources leads to high competition for control. Some problems in small-scale fisheries management create conflicts among stakeholders. These include the sale of common-access areas by the lot owners and the military taking over open-access ground and selling it to individual fishermen. This means that the livelihood of the community is affected, and poaching inside the fishing lot by the village fishermen is very common, often involving electro-fishing. In addition, agricultural activities inside the fishing lot by the community conflict with the use of water for different purposes. Also, the extension of fishing lot boundaries, when they are not clearly demarcated, may cause problems.

The operational problems of small-scale fisheries management are as follows:

1. Overfishing: Inland fish stocks are overexploited for large-size fish stocks and fully exploited on small-size fish stocks. Van Zalinge and Nao (1999) hypothesized about the state of exploitation of fish stocks of large and small migratory fish species and showed that large fish and medium-sized fish are overexploited, while small fish are fully exploited. Csavas et al. (1994) pointed out that circumstantial evidence shows that inland fisheries of Cambodia are under stress as indicated by the decline of larger-sized fish in the catch reported by fishermen and the Department of Fisheries. Castro and Huber (1992) stated that if the fish population size is very small, the number of the newly born is also small because there are not many potential parents. In addition, the decrease of fish stocks is due to ecosystem changes within the freshwater environment such as habitat degradation.

2. The Department of Fisheries lacks human resources, especially personnel with degrees such as MSc and PhD. There are very few fisheries officers with postgraduate degrees compared to officers with lower degrees. At present, there is not a single graduated PhD fellow in the field of fisheries or living aquatic science.

3. The Department of Fisheries lacks scientific data. The data they have are not scientifically reliable. No time series data of fish stocks exist. Therefore, stock assessments are badly needed to estimate the fishing effort, the fish landed, the biological processes and the fishing operations. Other parameters are also needed such as natural mortality and recruitment in order to find out the maximum sustainable yield and maximum economic yield. When these parameters are found, wise management and allocation of resources may be implemented in a sustainable way for use by the generations to come.

4. Illegal fishing activities and transportation of fisheries products occur all over the country. Fishermen fish and transport fisheries products illegally, with the support of high-ranking officers, and sell them to neighbouring countries. In the absence of alternatives locals may catch fish to earn some income, even if they know that their activities are destructive or illegal.

5. Existing fisheries law and regulations are hardly applied. They do not provide the proper tools for scientifically based fisheries management and allocation of resources. The law deals with only passive fisheries management, for which input controls have been used as management tools such as ban on gear, gear size, mesh size, closed season, closed areas and the like. Even though the law has existed for decades, its enforcement has been very poor due to the lack of means in the fisheries department such as patrol boats, and corruption scandals have occurred involving inspection officials right from the start.

6. There are too many conflicts between resource users and managers, especially as the population of Cambodia grows very fast. People need land to build their houses and to establish agricultural farms to support their families, while the government needs the land for fishing lots or fish sanctuaries. If more land is used as fishing ground or fishing lot or fish sanctuary, people do not have land for settlement. On the other hand, if all land is used by farmers, people will not have any fish to eat anymore. In addition, there have been many conflicts between lot owners and local people on fishing rights and property. The local people want to catch fish around their villages whose areas have become fishing lots auctioned by the owners, and these owners will not allow local people to fish within their lots. These matters have occurred in many provinces with freshwater fishing grounds, and high-ranking politicians, including the prime minister, have had to intervene.

7. There has been a problem of too much bureaucracy within the fisheries department and more generally the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. In order to deal with anything related to fisheries or fisheries management and development, there are long complicated procedures for decision-making, and it takes a very long time for a decision to be reached.

8. Finally, the Department of Fisheries faces budgetary limitations and infrastructure deficiency. It does not have enough money to run its administration and all offices in all provinces. Those offices are very poor and do not have any modern office materials such as computers, photocopy machines, fax, phones, etc. These commodities are only found at headquarters.

Some possible solutions to overcome constraints in small-scale fisheries management

The Department of Fisheries has to try its best to manage the resources and solve the conflict between users. Despite its 1500 employees - most of whom are in enforcement - fisheries are not well managed. This is illustrated by the increasing number of conflicts associated with the lot system (and some other fisheries) and the 1999 government decision allowing the 68 most valuable lots to be operated as “research” lots, which has led to increasing fishing pressure on the fish resources and conflicts with fishing communities.

The basic problem relates to the extremely low salaries of civil servants and the implicit possibility to use the power of the law for one’s own benefit. Therefore, the ultimate solution must be the improvement of salaries and the scaling down of the number of employees. For this, internally generated tax revenues need to be increased.

In the short term, management could be improved by allowing people with more appropriate training to play a more responsible role in the fisheries department. (This has been under implementation as of the end of October 2000.) The organizational structure of the department needs to be revised and responsibilities to be clarified. The new fisheries law should be completed after a consultation process with the principal stakeholders.

The solutions include:

• Making the auction system fully transparent and reducing the number of subleases and the amount of capital required to begin operation of lots.
• Determining fishing lot boundaries:
  • a transparent process to determine fishing lot boundaries by building up the fisheries department’s capacity to use appropriate technology for boundary verification such as GIS and GPS;
  • include all fisheries habitats and exclude villages and agricultural lands, etc; and
  • hold consultations with all stakeholders in the area. For example, promote stakeholder participation, including both local communities and authorities.

• Increasing the transparency of the “burden” book rules for the management responsibilities. These should be made available to the public, especially to local communities and authorities.
• Improving lot management through longer leases, more responsible managers, year-round management and better relations among stakeholders.
• Raising ecological awareness.
• The rights of small-scale (family) fisherfolk need to be established, in such a manner that they will not increase the pressure on the fish stocks.
• Development issues: Particularly, the management and development projects for the Tonle Sap area, such as the building of harbours, roads, navigation channels, etc, will have a negative effect on fisheries if the management system is not improved. The ecosystem will deteriorate, as the development projects will increase accessibility to and employment in the area. This will intensify the population pressure on the environment through the destruction of natural habitats due to the increased need for farmlands, fuel wood, fishing, etc. Instead, creation of employment in the areas directly outside the floodplains could relieve these pressures.
• The present revision of the fisheries law provides an excellent opportunity to establish a stronger and more focused institutional framework that allows broader participation of local users in protecting habitats and allows them to benefit from improved yields. These users comprise lot operators, national and local authorities, military and militia groups and small-scale fisherfolk.

References

Castro P. and Huder M. 1992: Marine Biology. Wm. C. Brown. Dubuque

Csavas I., Debas L., Doulman D.J., Petr T.O. and Prado J. 1994: Cambodia: rehabilitation and development needs of the fisheries sector. FAO, Rome

Gum W. 2000: Inland Aquatic Resources and Livelihoods in Cambodia: A guide to the literature, legislation, institutional framework and recommendations. Oxfam GB and NGO Forum on Cambodia, Phnom Penh

Deap L., Ly S. and van Zalinge N.P. (Eds.) 1998: Catch statistics of the Cambodian freshwater fisheries. MRC/DoF/DANIDA Project for the Management of the Freshwater Capture Fisheries of Cambodia. Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh. 186 p

King M. 1995: Fisheries Biology, Assessment and Management. Fishing News Books. Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 OEL

Ly K. 1990: Compiled Theme of Fisheries Laws. Department of Fisheries. Phnom Penh

Nao T. and Ly S. 1996: Review of the Fisheries and Aquaculture Sector in Cambodia. The Department of Fisheries, Phnom Penh

Rainboth W.J. 1996: Fishes of the Cambodia Mekong. FAO, Rome

Thay S. 2001: Current perceptions of local fishermen about community fisheries or co-management of fisheries. The Department of Fisheries, Phnom Penh

Touch S.T. 1995: Present Status of Fisheries in Cambodia and the Development Action Plans. The Department of Fisheries, Phnom Penh

Van Zalinge N.P. and Nao T. (Eds.) 1999: Present Status of Cambodia’s Freshwater Capture Fisheries and Management Implications. Nine presentations given at the Annual Meeting of the Department of Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 19-21 January 1999. Mekong River Commission and the Department of Fisheries, Phnom Penh, 149 p

Van Zalinge N.P, Nao T., Touch S.T. and Deap L. 2000: Where there is water there is Fish? Cambodian fisheries issues in a Mekong River Basin perspective. In: Common Property in the Mekong: Issues of sustainability and subsistence (2000). ICLARM, Australian Mekong Resource Centre and SIDA, Manila

Sebastian Mathew: Small-scale fisheries management in India: need for a paradigm shift

Executive Secretary
International Collective in Support of Fish Workers (ICSF)
Chennai, India

Introduction

After China, Peru and Japan, India is the fourth largest fish producer in the world. The combined marine, coastal and inland fish production of India, from capture and culture fisheries, stood at 5.4 million tonnes in 1999, of which the marine sub-sector alone accounted for 3 million tonnes. Almost the entire marine fish production is from the territorial waters under the jurisdiction of state governments. The estimated population of fisherfolk, both full-time and part-time, has grown from 2 million in 1973 to about 6 million in 1995. The majority operate from un-decked vessels.

‘Small-scale’ fisheries in India

‘Small-scale’ is not a recognized legal category in India. If overall length (OAL) or gross registered tonnage (GRT) is used - 20-m OAL or 25 GRT - for defining the small-scale sub-sector, almost the entire fishing fleet would fit these criteria. Trawling units are not generally considered small scale even if they are below 20-m OAL or below 25 GRT. Traditional, artisanal or small-scale fisheries range from rudimentary dugout canoes to motorized 16-m plywood or FRP vessels.

The expansion of small-scale fishing operations since the 1990s has had several effects. The gear base of small-scale fisheries has been losing its diversity. Artisanal fisheries have become more differentiated: they include both powered and non-powered vessels, and both active and passive gear groups. There has been a tremendous expansion of fishing capacity and increasing fishing pressure in the artisanal sector. In the traditional fisheries of Kerala, the number of plywood vessels has increased by 300 per cent, from less than 2 000 in 1991 to close to 6 000 in 1998, all motorized.

Conflicts over resources and overfishing pressure

There are exacerbating conflicts within the small-scale sub-sector among different gear groups as a result of the increased mobility of fishing vessels, capacity expansion and overfishing pressure. Thus, gear conflicts that were mainly confined to trawl and non-trawl groups have now become frequent among artisanal gear groups. With motorization, the division of labour seems to have broken down by making it easier for unskilled people to migrate into fishing activities. Built-in conditions of limited-access regimes have collapsed under the pressure of motorization.

According to the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) of India, the potential of current fishing grounds has already been exceeded. Although trends in marine fish production do not show a decline, recent observations by CMFRI indicate that fisheries are shifting from large piscivorous fish towards small invertebrates and planktivorous fish. There is fishing down the marine food chain, a shift in mean trophic level from close to 3.5 in the 1950s to 3.2 in the late 1990s.

The state of Gujarat, currently the biggest producer of marine fish in the country, faces economic and biological overfishing pressures. The marine fish production of Gujarat has dropped by over 27 per cent to 552 000 tonnes in 1998-99, from a peak of 702 000 tonnes in 1997-98. Since the formation of the state in 1960 until 1998-99, when its total marine fish production increased sevenfold, the size of its mechanized fleet (both IBM- and OBM-powered vessels) expanded 50-fold, and the value of fish production increased by over 500 times. There were about 17 000 mechanized fishing vessels on the register in 1998-99, of which over 14 000 vessels were IBM-powered vessels.

Fisheries management in India

According to the Seventh Schedule, Article 246 of the Constitution of India, fisheries within the territorial waters are under the jurisdiction of the state government and fishing and fisheries beyond territorial waters are under the jurisdiction of the central government.

The Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and other Maritime Zones Act, 1976 of India recognizes [Section 7 Para (4) (a)] the sovereign rights to conservation and management of living resources in the Indian exclusive economic zone in addition to their exploration and exploitation. Section 15 (c) further gives power to the central government to make rules for conservation and management of the living resources of the exclusive economic zone, and Section 15 (e) for the protection of the marine environment.

The basic fisheries legislation that followed this act, namely the Maritime Zones of India (Regulation of Fishing by Foreign Vessels) Act, 1981 and the Maritime Zones of India (Regulation of Fishing by Foreign Vessels) Rules, 1982, however, does not make any mention of conservation or management. The only Indian legislation which mentions “undertaking measures for the conservation and management of offshore and deep-sea fisheries” is the Marine Products Export Development Authority Act, 1972 [Section 9(2)(a)], but no management measures are known to exist under this act. There is still an absence of a legal regime to manage fisheries operated by Indian nationals using vessels of Indian origin in the Indian exclusive economic zone beyond territorial limits.

All the maritime states of India (with the exception of Gujarat) have enacted the Marine Fishing Regulation (MFR) Act since the 1980s. It is based on a model piece of legislation prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, more than two decades ago “to protect the interests of different sections of persons, esp. those engaged in fishing with traditional fishing craft; to conserve fish; and to regulate fishing on a scientific basis; and to maintain law and order”.

The act was drawn up at a time when coastal fisheries were mainly divided into mechanized and non-mechanized fishing units and when there were tremendous conflicts between the two sub-sectors over access to fishing space and resources, sometimes leading to destruction of life and property. It has been primarily used to separate trawlers from other gear groups. In this sense, the act has been mainly used for the purpose of maintaining law and order at sea.

The main emphasis of the MFR Act is on regulating fishing vessels in their respective 12-mile territorial sea mainly to protect the interests of fishermen on board traditional fishing vessels. There are no legal mechanisms to address all aspects of fisheries management. There is no coordination between different maritime states, although vessels are increasingly migrating into the waters of adjacent states. Since the pressure of overfishing is felt most acutely within territorial waters, the most important requirement towards conservation and management would be to reform the state-level conservation and management regime. The MFR Act is in urgent need of amendment.

There is a need to see conservation and management of marine fisheries in proactive terms to rebuild, restore or maintain any fisheries resources and the marine environment and consistent with the UNCLOS and other international legal instruments that India has acceded to. Conservation and management are also to be made the collective responsibility of the central and the state governments in an integrated manner. Adopting the proactive principles to rebuild, restore or maintain any fisheries resource or the marine environment will be a major step ahead of the reactive principles to regulate, restrict and prohibit fishing by fishing vessels, as currently emphasised under the MFR Act of the maritime states.

Measures are required to protect the marine environment from pollution. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, although rarely invoked, has made provisions to protect the coastal sea from land-based sources of pollution subject to the discretion of the state government. This act, in conjunction with the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification of 1991 under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, can contribute to regulating land-based sources of pollution in the coastal waters up to a maximum distance as decided by the state government.

Gear selectivity is another area where there is scope for improvement. The negative impact of bottom trawling on fisheries resources and fish habitats, although recognized internationally is yet to translate into legal measures to restrict its negative cascade effects on fish resources and fishing communities. Similarly, the use of fine-meshed nets in estuaries also needs to be effectively regulated.

Conservation and management of fisheries resources and habitat protection measures should be accompanied by institutional mechanisms that bring about equitable allocation of these resources. One important requirement would be building up effective fish-worker organizations which can take up fisheries management functions and which can also draw from the strengths of traditional fisheries management systems wherever they exist.

Building up such fish-worker organizations is an important prerequisite for introducing limited access regimes in Indian fisheries since local organizations where fish-workers have full participation will have greater legitimacy among coastal communities. Consider that, according to a conservative estimate of FAO, there are about 182 000 un-decked and 57 000 decked fishing vessels in about 4 000 marine fishing villages, with an equal number of landing centres in India.

Kerala seems to be the only state that has recognized the importance of fisheries management, especially its ecological and social dimensions. It already has a fisheries development and management policy initiated through a consultative process in 1994, which recognizes, inter alia, (1) the ecosystem dimensions of fisheries; (2) a reform “to ensure that the rights of ownership of fishing assets will rest only with those who fish”; (3) fisherfolk participation in fisheries management; and (4) the need to bring to the attention of other sectors their negative impact on marine and freshwater ecosystems. These policies, however, are yet to become legislation.

At the national level, efforts are beginning towards fisheries management although the details are still being worked on. It is believed that there will be financial allocation under the Tenth Five Year Plan of India (2002-2007) for fisheries management programmes for the first time. The plan document is expected by the end of November 2001.

Conclusion

Conservation of fisheries resources, protection of fish habitats and allocation to fisherfolk are the three most important considerations in fisheries management. The existing legislation and policies for the fisheries sector are still in the development mode of the 1980s. Within the industry and at the level of state governments there is no clear recognition of the need to introduce management measures, including limited access regimes. The state governments seem to be caught in a bind where they find it difficult to reverse fisheries policies developed at a time when fisheries resources were underutilized. Even for small-scale fish-worker organizations to agree to fisheries management requirements - for example, the need for fleet reduction or greater gear selectivity - it is almost conditional that such measures have to be preceded by greater regulation of trawl or large-scale fisheries. Given the length of its seaboard, the growing fisherfolk population and fleet size, lack of coordination between states and absence of enabling legislation, effective fisheries management policies and programmes are likely to take a long time to be conceived and implemented. The situation is exacerbated by chronic poverty and unemployment in many coastal areas, where the government has no easy position to see the problems and prospects of the fisheries sector in isolation from other social and economic problems. It is yet to be recognized and understood that sustainable marine fisheries are in the long run the best protection for coastal communities from poverty.

Victor P. H. Nikijuluw: Small-scale fisheries management in Indonesia

Director, Socio-economic and Community Study
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Indonesia

Definition

There is no definition of Indonesian small-scale fisheries based on any formal law, either at the national or at the provincial level. The term of small-scale fisheries, however, is explicitly mentioned in government codes and ministerial decrees. The definition of small-scale fisheries is widely understood by scientists, academics, bureaucrats and politicians to mean fisheries undertaken by ordinary people in contrast to fisheries done by formal fishing enterprises. In terms of boat size and technology type, small-scale fisheries is often referred to as fishing activities without using boats, using non-powered boats, or boats with outboard engines or under 30 GT inboard engines. For the sake of management, small-scale fisheries is confined to activities within 12 nautical miles from the shore or in waters under the jurisdiction of provincial governments.

Current status of fisheries

Small-scale fisheries are growing steadily in numbers although mechanization, modernization and use of other fabricated inputs are taking place. The number of small-scale fishing households increases in magnitude and seems to be unchanged in percentage (Table 1). At the same time, the number of large-scale fisheries increases tremendously. It means that new entrants to the industry come from various scales and types of boat. Although small-scale fleets are converted to large ones, it is not enough to reduce the amount of small-scale fleets. As a consequence, about 82 percent of the small fishing fleets dominate Indonesian capture fisheries.

Table 1. Fishing establishments by scale and type of boat

Scale/Type	1989	2000	2000 [%]
Without boat	45 298	50 785	11.21
Non-powered boat	208 171	220 599	48.69
Outboard engine	64 723	98 647	21.77
Subtotal	318 192	370 031	81.67
Inboard engine	40 240	83 073	18.33
Total	358 432	453 104	100.00

In total, there are 2.3 million people who work directly as marine fishermen, of whom 1.2 million are full timers and 1.1 million are part timers. The definitions of full- and part-time fisherfolk are not based on time spent fishing but rather on the contribution of fishing to household income. Therefore the full-time fishers are those whose household income derives entirely from fishing, while the part timers are those whose income derives from fishing and other economic activities.

Aside from 2.3 million fisherfolk who directly depend on fishing, there are those who work in forward- and backward-linked activities. A recent study indicated that for every 100 fishermen, there are 40 supporting workers in input supply and fish processing and 5 working in fish marketing. Therefore, altogether there are about 3.4 million people who directly and indirectly work in fisheries.

Table 2. Number of fishing gear in 2000

Gear	Number (Unit)
BED-equipped net	541
Seine net	41 651
Purse seine	10 082
Gillnet	187 815
Lift net	45 196
Hook and line	247 905
Trap	71 549
Shell collection	8 885
Muro-ami	1 326
Cast net and harpoon	34 553

Various types of fishing gear are used ranging from modern, labour-saving ones like trawl and fish nets (modified trawl for fish), the labour-intensive technologies such as purse seine and pole and line, down to traditional technologies like beach seine and spear fishing. Before 1983, all types of fishing gear could be operated throughout Indonesian waters. But Presidential Decree Number 39/1980 banned trawling. By adding a by-catch excluder device (BED) in the net, trawl is allowed to operate in certain eastern waters of Indonesia. For statistics and data collection, fishing gear is categorized into 11 groups. The biggest group is hook and line, followed by gillnet, lift net and trap. The BED-equipped net is the smallest in number, but gives a substantial amount of commercial and export fish (Table 2).

Fisheries have a significant contribution as foreign exchange earner. The export of fisheries products had steadily increased and reached the peak value of about US$2 billion in 1998. However, due to global economic crises coupled with internal political, peace and order problems, exports have declined. In the year 2000, the export value reached US$1.6 billion only. The main exports were shrimp and tuna. Recently, some other species have been introduced for export to compete in the tough markets, although the volume and value of these products are small. In addition, export items have been diversified from frozen products to higher-value products such as block sashimi, and even fresh fish.

The performance of the fisheries sector can be seen from its contribution to GDP. As generally applied in Indonesia, GDP is based only on production and unprocessed or primary products. The value of activities resulting from fish processing, fish marketing and other fish-based products which are an essential part of the fisheries system are included in the GDP of the non-fisheries sector. Therefore the GDP of fisheries tends to be underestimated. Based on the primary products, fisheries’ contribution to GDP is only about 2 percent. In the early 1970s, the share of the fisheries sector was three to four percent of GDP. The figure slowly went down to about 2 percent i the late 1970s and has remained unchanged until now.

Management experience

The management of small-scale fisheries in Indonesia is not as intensive as in large-scale fisheries. This is because there are many fishermen operating very small fishing units scattered throughout the remote islands and waters. Therefore, while laws and regulations are supposed to apply to the entire fisheries sector, only large-scale fisheries comply with them. Small-scale fisheries, on the other hand, tend to operate without any management approach. This may be due to the lack of facilities, personnel and operational funds.

Under the Fisheries Code No. 9/1985 and Government Regulation No. 15/1990, all fishing units should operate with licenses issued by the government. For the boats up to 30 GT, the licenses are issued by the local governments through local fisheries services at district or provincial level. Boats of more than 30 GT must get a license from the central government, through the Directorate General of Capture Fisheries. The exception to fish without license is for small-scale fishing for household consumption only. In other words, subsistence fisherfolk are not obliged to apply for licenses.

Problems arise from the interpretation of subsistence fishing. In the case of Indonesian fisheries, the meaning of subsistence and commercial fishing are intermingled, depending on the situation faced by the fishermen. Throughout the year, fisherfolk always bring home some fish for family consumption regardless of the scale of their equipment and the amount of landing. This means that every fisherman does subsistence fishing by nature. Outside peak fishing season most fishermen operate their gear just to fulfil their consumption needs and therefore totally act as subsistence fishermen. During peak season, however, they catch fish for consumption as well as for sale in the markets. However, they still claim that they are subsistence fishermen in order to avoid licensing.

Aside from the application of licenses as a tool of fisheries management, the government has taken a zoning or fishing belt approach so that a particular type and scale of technology can only fish in particular waters. There are three fishing zones: (1) within 4 miles from the shore, (2) between 4 and 12 miles and (3) from 12 miles outwards. The fishing zone approach has been applied since the 1980s, but it was never effectively implemented. In 1999, the approach was revived, with the number of zones reduced from four to three. The small-scale fishermen are privileged to catch in zones 1 and 2. They may go to zone 3 if they are able to do so. Yet, large-scale fisheries which are obliged to fish in zone 3 often enter zones 1 and 2. Consequently social conflicts between the two groups are unavoidable, and the fish resources, especially in inshore waters, tend to be degraded and are overexploited.

Another approach used in fisheries resource management is mesh size restrictions. Fishing methods which are perceivably destructive are strictly prohibited. Although the use of very fine mesh, cyanide, and blast fishing are prohibited, in reality there are many places (regions) where these methods are still practised. In other words, in regions where there are many small fisherfolk, they apparently do not comply with regulations. In other places, however, although local fisherfolk obey the regulations, fishermen from other places come and fish using destructive fishing methods.

Poaching by international fishermen is another problem faced by the Indonesian small-scale fisherfolk. Illegal fishing boats of neighbouring countries often fish in waters destined to small-scale fishermen. The Indonesian navy detained in the last two years 98 Thai boats and two Vietnamese boats illegally fishing in Indonesian waters. Some cases were brought to court, fishermen were sentenced and their boats confiscated or destroyed.

Ineffective regulations are generally due to lack of enforcement. The geographical condition of Indonesia, which consists of 17 508 islands with a coastline of 81 000 km and water areas of 5.8 million km², has indeed the potential to further develop fisheries, but it also translates into problems of management. The lack of funds, personnel and facilities severely hampers the enforcement of law and regulations.

In Indonesia the management approaches in small-scale fisheries follow a government-led management scheme. However, considering that the approaches are not well implemented, one may say that there is no management in Indonesian small-scale fisheries. In other words, the fisheries are de jure under a government-managed regime but de facto enjoy open access.

The result of this fisheries management regime is very clear: the poverty of the small-scale fisherfolk. A recent study indicates that the average family gross income is about Rp400 000 (about US$40) per month. With the average family size of four, it means that the per capita monthly income of a fishing family is about US$10. This figure is far below the monthly income of workers in the manufacture and industrial sectors, which is about US$100 per month.

Solution to the problems

To overcome the above-mentioned problems, at least two main sets of policy have been devised recently by the government. The first policy set is a review of the political economics of fisheries, and the second is decentralization by giving more responsibilities to districts and provincial governments. Within the framework of the reform government policies are essentially directed to revitalizing people-based economics which are characterized by the promotion and development of small and medium-scale enterprises.

Within the first set of policy are (1) reformulation of the objectives of fisheries development, (2) establishment of the Department of Fisheries and Marine Affairs (DFMA), (3) establishment of the Indonesian Maritime Council (IMC) and (4) promotion of good governance in the fisheries sector.

The objectives in fisheries development used to be focused on export and production. The new policies’ main objective is to increase the wellbeing of fisherfolk. This priority may be achieved by increasing production, especially from aquaculture, increasing added value of the products, promoting export, raising domestic demand and consumption of fish, and rationally managing fish resources. Therefore, there is a big shift in fisheries management. If before, the management was directed to producing fish in a sustainable manner, now it has shifted to a more rudimentary objective, that is, to improve the quality of life of fisherfolk.

Putting the fisherfolk first is not a slogan. With the new reform the government established DFMA. The main reasoning for the establishment of the department, according to President Abdurachman Wahid at the launching of his cabinet in October 1999, was to care and watch over small-scale fisherfolk so that they could be better off. Under DFMA, there is a special directorate whose main responsibility is to empower small-scale fisherfolk through the development of small and medium-sized enterprises, including cooperatives. The tasks of the directorate include providing access to capital, markets and technology for small-scale fishermen and fostering community-based resource management through revitalization of custom and traditional practices owned by the people.

Along with the establishment of DFMA, the government established IMC whose function is to help the government in coordinating, synchronizing, harmonizing and integrating all marine activities so as to improve the economic situation of people whose life depends on marine resources. This implies that the fisherfolk’s wellbeing is the concern of IMC, besides that of others also working in the marine sector in tourism and transportation.

The fourth policy is the promotion of good governance in fisheries. Good governance refers to the development of government services and practices of government tasks and obligations according to prevailing laws and regulations. To achieve this, control from people is encouraged. People’s control can be realized if they are included at all stages of the development, from planning to programme evaluation and monitoring. In line with increasing participation of the people, non-governmental organizations and private voluntary organizations are encouraged and given more opportunity to participate in coastal community development.

Future development of decentralized management

Decentralization of management authority is now taking place in Indonesia in several sectors, except for foreign-related policies, national defence and financial policies. All other development activities including fisheries are decentralized. It means that district and provincial governments are given more responsibilities in development. In fisheries and community development, decentralization brings significant changes because district and provincial governments suddenly are given tasks, authorities and responsibilities they never had before.

With the enactment of Law No. 22/1999 on regional autonomy and Law No. 25/1999 on financial relations, regional autonomy has become reality. These two laws create the legal and financial framework for governance primarily by districts, with assistance from both the provincial and the central levels of government. Article 4 of Law No 22/1999 sets the general tone, that the law is intended to arrange and organize local societies, through their own decision, based on their own aspiration.

Law No. 22/1999 has tremendous bearing on coastal resource management. Most directly, Article 3 establishes a territorial sea under jurisdiction of the province that extends up to 12 nautical miles from the coastal shoreline. Within this territory, Article 10(2) elaborates that provincial authority includes three categories: (1) exploration, exploitation, conservation and management of the sea area, (2) administrative affairs and (3) law enforcement. Pursuant to Article 10(3), the district may establish jurisdiction over one third of the provincial waters, seaward from the island shoreline, or 4 nautical miles from the coastal shoreline. The elucidation of Article 10(2) explicitly states that traditional fishing rights are not restricted by the regional territorial sea delimitation.

With these autonomy laws, which were beginning to be implemented in January 2001, districts and provinces are free to set their own government structures. Of 30 provinces and about 270 coastal districts, all the provinces and about 200 districts have fisheries service offices whose function is to develop fisheries in their areas. With decentralization, some districts have begun to identify types of resource management practices by their people that had vanished in the last 50 years. With the help of district parliaments that also have a fisheries and marine affairs section, district governments are now developing their own laws on marine fisheries in their areas. Traditional fisheries resource management, customary laws, traditional territorial use rights, indigenous technologies and most of all the aspirations of fisherfolk are included in local laws enacted by district parliaments.

Concluding remarks

Some districts are rich and some poor, so decentralization is not balanced and equal. Districts rich in natural resources can outsource people to develop their regions, they may provide infrastructure and facilities for development and they may finance their people to establish people-based economic activities. This is not the case for districts poor in natural resources. In the future there will be a discrepancy in the development of districts which may lead to conflicts over the utilization of fish resources especially in the bordering waters of districts.

The first problems of managing small-scale fisheries have arisen due to claims over waters by one district which has closed the opportunity for fishermen coming from other regions, although these waters are their traditional fishing grounds. Again, the definition of traditional and modern fisheries may vary from one district to another and lead to different interpretations and actions to protect and control the aquatic resources.

With the bigger roles, responsibilities and authorities accruing to district governments, community-based management systems have begun to be established by some districts. However, several other districts are still in the process of finding out the ways and approaches they have to follow. Advocacy, supervision, extension and empowerment of local people by the central government, NGOs and private voluntary organizations are going on. But they cannot reach all the districts that may have different interests and problems. The decentralization of fisheries management is still in the infancy stage. It can only grow if there are enough nutritious inputs supplied by the central government, NGOs and voluntary organizations under the auspices of international agencies.

Mohd Taupek Mohd Nasir: Co-management of small-scale fisheries in Malaysia

Marine Fisheries resources Development and Management Department
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre,
Chendering, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia

Introduction

As with most of her sister countries in Southeast Asia, Malaysia is greatly dependent on fish resources to satisfy the protein needs of her population. Fish resources in Malaysia may be obtained from three sources: fresh water (e.g. rivers, lakes), brackish water and marine water. Of these, marine fish resources are the most important, being connected to the eating habits of the people who greatly prefer the tastier marine fish to freshwater fish in their diet.

The fishing community of the country has always relied on traditional types of gear such as drift or gillnet, hook and line, fish trap, bag net, barrier net, etc, allowing for small-scale operations. In the 1960s, new fishing methods were introduced: mainly trawlers and purse seiners, collectively known as commercial fishing gear. But the greater number of fishermen still use traditional gear. Thus, management decisions undertaken to address the fisheries situation in this country inevitably affect the lives of the greater number of small-scale fisherfolk, even though they are primarily directed at commercial fisheries.

A number of terms are used when describing the various situations relating to small-scale fisheries. For the purpose of this paper, the following definitions have been adopted:

• Small-scale fisheries: fisheries that is undertaken using small-scale boat, gear and equipment.
• Artisanal fisheries: fisheries that is undertaken mostly for home consumption using selected traditional gear.
• Subsistence fisheries: fisheries that is undertaken mainly for home consumption using selected traditional gear.

Current status of small-scale fisheries in Malaysia

The 1998 Malaysian Annual Fisheries Statistics estimated that 81 548 fisherfolk earned their livelihood by catching fish. Out of these, 51.6 percent (42 111) operated traditional fishing gear in small-scale fisheries throughout the country (see Table 1 at the end of this paper). In terms of fish production, an estimated 289 275 tonnes of fish (23.63 percent of total fish landing) were caught by these small-scale fishermen in 1998 (Table 2).

Operating mostly in inshore coastal waters, small-scale fishermen use common traditional gear such as drift or gillnet, hook and line, fish trap (both stationary and portable), lift net, bag net, barrier net, push net and shellfish collection apparatus to support their livelihood. Depending on the geographical location and availability of the fish resources, some types of gear are preferred to others.

On the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, the drift or gillnet is extremely popular and is the dominant traditional gear used (in terms of number of fishermen and catch): 87.5 percent of the small-scale fishermen used this gear in 1998 (Table 3). The annual catch of this gear in 1998 was about 74 000 tonnes - or slightly over 66 percent of the annual total fish landed by small-scale fisheries in the area. Second in dominance was the bag net (employed by some 4.3 percent of the small-scale fishermen in 1998), and this was followed by hook and line (2.4 percent).

On the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, the drift or gillnet and hook and line are the two most important gear types employed by small-scale fishermen (Table 4). In 1998, the drift or gillnet was the dominant gear in terms of number of fishermen, followed by hook and line. But in terms of highest catch by traditional gear, the open nature of the South China Sea appropriately supports the effective use of hook and line. An estimated 24 000 tonnes of top-quality fish was caught by this gear in 1998.

In Sarawak, the dominating traditional gear types are the drift or gillnet, bag net and hook and line (in this order of importance); in Sabah waters, the main gear types are the drift or gillnet, hook and line, and lift net.

In the 1960s and 1970s, small-scale fishermen made up to 80 percent of the total fishing workforce. But gradually, over the last few decades, due to marked improvement in commercial fishing technology, an increasing number of these traditional fisherfolk have switched to commercial gear, thus increasing profitability. At present, the remaining number of small-scale fishermen exceeds only slightly the number of commercial fishermen.

Figures 1 to 12 provide the catch trends of the dominant traditional gear types operating in the waters on the west and east coasts of Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah between 1988 and 1998.

Annual fluctuation in the catch, within a specific range limit, is normal, and is to be expected within fisheries modes. In most observed cases, however, the catch trends appear as rising or horizontal, especially among the predominant small-scale fisheries by drift or gillnet and hook and line in Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah, indicating that fish resources will still be available in their coastal waters in the years to come.

Portable trap fisheries on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia registered some reduction in catch in recent years, however, in contrast to the activities on the east coast which appeared to be making increasing profits. Bag net fisheries on the peninsular west coast also showed less catches, partly related to the decreasing number of fishermen within this fisheries.

The challenge for fisheries managers now would thus be in initiating proper management responses to ensure that fish resources will continue to be available in future, and in this regard, small-scale fisheries managers have chosen co-management to further develop and manage their fisheries.

Experiences in implementing small-scale fisheries management schemes

The development of the fishing industry for both commercial and small-scale fisheries in Malaysia has followed closely the guidelines of the National Agriculture Policy, which aims to bring about changes in the industry so that it evolves into a commercial, modern and progressive sector. To fulfil its mission, the Malaysian Department of Fisheries has identified four broad objectives under the marine capture fisheries sector that need to be achieved, namely:

1. To increase the national fish production
2. To rationally manage fishing resources
3. To develop the deep-sea fishing industry
4. To maximize the income of the fishing industry

a) Limitation of fishing effort through the issuance of fishing gear and fishing vessel licences.

b) Restructuring of ownership patterns of fishing licences.

c) Management of a zoning system, which gives an exclusive right to the traditional small-scale fisherman to fish in Zone A, which is within 5 nautical miles from the coast, while other fishing zones are based on the tonnage of fishing vessels and types of fishing gear used.

d) Relocation or deployment of fishermen to other economic activities such as aquaculture, eco-tourism or other downstream activities.

e) Conservation and rehabilitation of the marine ecosystem through the establishment of marine parks and artificial reefs.

f) Continuous research and development, particularly in the monitoring of resource potential, and development of eco-friendly fishing technology.

The terms of reference which have been identified using this approach include:

1. To increase the awareness among the fishermen and fisheries department staff of the importance of the co-management approach to address local fisheries development and management issues.

2. To provide the required technical and human skills to both fisheries department staff and targeted stakeholders involved in the implementation of co-management programmes.

3. To provide the required platform and acceptable mechanisms appropriate to local conditions under which fisheries planning, implementation and monitoring programmes can be undertaken effectively.

4. To help identify and comprehend local fisheries development and management issues.

5. To reach a workable consensus after close discussions between fisheries department staff and stakeholders on ways to resolve these local fisheries development and management issues.

6. To evaluate the performance and effectiveness of fisheries management policies and programmes given local conditions.

7. To help determine new techniques or strategies, applicable under sustainable fisheries development and management, that may help increase the productivity and competitiveness of small-scale fishermen.

8. To closely monitor co-management programmes to ensure their effective implementation.

9. To identify the roles that need to be played by the various stakeholders in order to obtain their active participation to ensure the success of the co-management programmes.

a) FEG of Batin village at Seberang Takir, Kuala Terengganu
b) FEG of Pachakan Semerak at Pasir Putih, Kelantan
c) FEG of Sungai Buloh, Selangor
d) FEG of Sungai Ular at Kuantan, Pahang
e) FEG of Kuala Pontian at Rompin, Pahang
f) FEG of Penyabung at Sedeli, Johor

Other economic activities undertaken by the FEGs include the sale of fuel to fishing boats, wholesale of fish and fish products, and even an attempt to culture selected crab and fish species, as some of the FEGs in Selangor did. Attempts to resolve conflicts that commonly arise between small-scale and commercial fishermen, especially those pertaining to the destruction of traditional gear by commercial fishermen, are made using the FEG platform.

Legal adjustments and legal instruments

Malaysia is a federation of states, which means some matters are within the powers of the federal legislature and others within the powers of the state legislatures to legislate. Fishing in both maritime and estuarine waters is a federal matter, but fishing in the rivers and other fresh waters comes under state jurisdiction.

Under the Fisheries Act, 1985, the Ministry of Agriculture is empowered to make regulations for the proper management of marine fisheries resources. Small-scale fisheries, being related mostly to the estuaries and maritime coastal waters, thus come directly under this act as well as other provisions, notably as follows:

• Fisheries (Prohibition of Methods of Fishing) Regulation 1980: This regulation prohibits the use of destructive methods of fishing practices, which can result in indiscriminate destruction of the coastal ecosystem, and its associated biodiversity. Under this regulation, pair trawling, cyanide fishing, electric fishing, and the use of explosives are banned. The use of the push net and large-mesh gillnets is also prohibited.
• Fisheries (Prohibited Areas) (Rantau Abang) Regulation 1991: The main objective of this regulation is to protect nesting turtles in the vicinity of the Rantau Abang turtle sanctuary area. This area, of approximately 160 square nautical miles of maritime coastal water, as specified in the schedule, is declared as a fisheries prohibited area. No person is allowed to kill or capture any fish within this specified area, except for fishing using anchovies seine net, hook and line, lift net and squid jigging, which are not harmful to turtles.
• Fisheries (Establishment of Marine Parks Malaysia) Order 1994: The establishment of marine parks and marine reserves is directly relevant to the conservation and management of fish resources, as it will ensure the protection of the environment, hence the sustainability of the resources in the protected area. This is in line with the principal goal of establishing the marine parks and marine reserves, which is to protect, conserve and manage marine ecosystems of significance, with the objective of directly protecting the aquatic flora and fauna, their habitat and natural breeding grounds. At present, four marine parks, which group the waters of 40 islands off the west and east coasts of Peninsular Malaysia, have been gazetted. The act for the establishment of marine parks in the state of Sabah comes under the state legislation, and, to date, three marine parks consisting of 10 islands have been established in the state.

Constraints in implementing small-scale fisheries management schemes

Since these small-scale fisheries management schemes for improving the standard of livelihood of fishermen have only been implemented within the last couple of years, a complete evaluation of the effectiveness of such schemes has still not been made. However, existing constraints that were known to hamper its smooth running, especially during the initial stages, would include:

Funding limitations

Funding has always remained the greatest factor that inhibits the effective implementation of any small-scale fisheries management project. In most cases, the government remains the sole fund provider for the project, and as such, only limited funding is available for the implementation of a limited number of projects, all these again to be completed within a specified period of time.

Human resource limitations

There is a need to upgrade the present levels of education, skill and responsibility of fishermen and fisheries department staff to become more productive, committed, skilful and competitive. A large number of fisherfolk are either unaware of or not impressed by the basic tenets of conservation and sustainable yields, and as such need special consideration for the further improvement of their knowledge.

Fishermen’s dependence on middlemen

The dependence of a large number of small-scale fishermen on middlemen or towkays has likewise created some reluctance in their active participation in fisheries management schemes. The influence of these towkays on the fishermen is still considerable, since small-scale fishermen depend on them to borrow money to cover the initial operating expenditures in their fishing activities. In return, the fishermen often sell back their catches to these towkays, mostly at lower market value.

Awareness campaigns

There is a general lack of awareness campaigns by the authorities concerned, whether at national or local level, regarding the benefits of these small-scale fisheries management projects for small-scale fishermen.

Lessons learned

The following points illustrate some lessons that have been drawn from the co-management scheme:

• The basic philosophy of the government, i.e. the relevant ministry and department, to the co-management concept of small-scale fisheries as an initial step, which could in turn lead to rights-based fisheries, is important, and should be correctly portrayed and widely disseminated.
• Institutional arrangements for rights-based fisheries might take time before such fisheries can be fully implemented.
• The general level of education, responsibility and expertise of fishermen needs further improvement, with the government and relevant agencies spearheading the implementation of all activities that may result in the attainment of such goals.

Solutions to overcome constraints in small-scale fisheries management

A possible solution to funding limitations might lie with the ability to garner greater support for small-scale fishermen by the government. For this to be achieved, more extensive management schemes covering certain periods of time, which can promise greater economic returns to both the fishermen and the government, would definitely be more acceptable, and would thus have greater potential to be funded at higher cost. In the end, funding might even come from within the industry itself should such management schemes be successful in attaining greater economic returns for the fishermen concerned.

Human resource development programmes are useful tools to overcome this type of limitation, both in the short and long terms. The end products from such programmes should effectively raise the present levels of education, skill and responsibility of the fishermen concerned in matters relating to resource conservation and sustainable yields, for their benefit as well as that of future generations. Better economic returns that might be obtained after undertaking these programmes and applying them in their fishing activities might also result in lesser dependence on the middlemen.

Future development of decentralized small-scale fisheries management schemes including proposed solutions to noted constraints

It is rather difficult at present to indicate when decentralized small-scale fisheries management can be fully applied in Malaysia. To a large extent, such a move would depend on how effective and successful the ongoing co-management programme in small-scale fisheries is.

Estimated funding requirements for future initiatives

The funding requirements are difficult to estimate at the moment since they depend on a complete listing of the various activities and initiatives that may be undertaken for the benefit of small-scale fisherfolk, which would be considerable. Malaysia as a developing nation would of course welcome any assistance from recognized parties to help raise the economic level of her small-scale fisherfolk and the sustainable development of these fisheries.

Conclusion

Malaysia is committed to helping her small-scale fishermen and fishing industry to reach their maximum potential, and for this purpose the use of co-management scheme appears to suffice and is acceptable to all relevant parties, although a complete evaluation and success of the scheme has yet to be made.

Table 1. Estimated number of fishermen in small-scale fisheries from various parts of Malaysia and for the whole country between 1988 and 1998

	West Coast P’sular	East Coast P’sular	Sarawak	Sabah	Labuan	Malaysia
1988	19 919	10 770	8 959	9 679	371	49 698
1989	23 530	9 997	7 320	9 790	305	50 942
1990	21 621	10 446	7 503	9 017	349	48 936
1991	20 933	10 360	4 173	9 015	364	44 845
1992	19 953	10 002	4 127	10 931	392	45 405
1993	16 143	8 463	4 632	11 954	287	41 479
1994	15 010	8 399	4 500	13 345	280	41 534
1995	18 060	8 472	4 297	13 345	251	44 425
1996	15 500	8 596	3 747	14 070	281	42 194
1997
1998	13 865	8 144	5 563	14 225	314	42 111

Table 2. Annual landings of the small-scale fisheries from various parts of Malaysia and for the whole country between 1988 and 1998

	West coast P’sular	East coast P’sular	Sarawak	Sabah	Labuan	Malaysia
	Landings (tonnes)	Landings (tonnes)	Landings (tonnes)	Landings (tonnes)	Landings (tonnes)	Landings (tonnes)
1988	72 355	48 830	40 135	28 877	1 653	191 850
1989	100 884	49 918	29 071	21 815	4 681	206 369
1990	90 787	39 200	31 842	19 640	4 596	186 065
1991	75 777	36 361	29 677	57 432	5 347	204 594
1992	91 776	42 481	30 804	77 887	9 197	252 145
1993	106 858	46 742	30 717	71 871	6 588	262 776
1994	116 150	43 922	34 205	76 560	6 871	277 708
1995	131 555	36 753	35 984	81 052	8 274	293 618
1996	132 403	37 992	49 033	80 165	9 952	309 545
1997
1998	111 393	57 302	36 793	73 910	9 877	289 275

Table 3. Annual catches of the traditional fishing gear on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia in 1998 and number of fisherfolk involved

	Annual catch (tonnes)	Percent of total catch	Number of fisherman	Percent of group
Drift/gillnet	73 948	66.38	12 125	87.45
Lift net
Stationary trap	659	0.59	135	0.97
Portable trap	529	0.47	96	0.69
Hook and line	5 693	5.11	337	2.43
Bag net	16 149	14.50	598	4.31
Barrier net	1 710	1.54	17	0.12
Push net	6 583	5.91	57	0.41
Shellfish collection	5 121	4.60	153	1.10
Miscellaneous	1 001	0.90	347	2.50
Total	111 393		13 865

Table 4. Annual catches of the traditional fishing gear on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia in 1998 and number of fishermen involved

	Annual catch (Tonnes)	Percent of total catch	Number of fishermen	Percent of group
Drift/gillnet	12 449	21.73	4 556	55.94
Lift net	9 460	16.51	218	2.68
Stationary trap	76	0.13	42	0.52
Portable trap	9 240	16.13	749	9.20
Hook and line	24 670	43.05	2 502	30.72
Bag net	1 354	2.36	32	0.39
Barrier net
Push net
Shellfish collection
Miscellaneous	53	0.09	45	0.55
Total	57 302		8 144

Figure 1. Catch trend of drift/gillnet fisheries on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia between 1988 and 1998

Figure 2. Catch trend of hook-and-line fisheries on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia between 1988 and 1998

Figure 3. Catch trend of bag net fisheries on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia between 1988 and 1998

Figure 4. Catch trend of portable fish trap (bubu) fisheries on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia between 1988 and 1998

Figure 5. Catch trend of drift/gillnet fisheries on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia between 1988 and 1998

Figure 6. Catch trend of hook-and-line fisheries on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia between 1988 and 1998

Figure 7. Catch trend of bag net fisheries on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia between 1988 and 1998

Figure 8. Catch trend of portable fish trap (bubu) fisheries on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia between 1988 and 1998

Figure 9. Catch trend of drift/gillnet fisheries in Sarawak waters between 1988 and 1998

Figure 10. Catch trend of hook-and-line fisheries in Sarawak waters between 1988 and 1998

Figure 11. Catch trend of drift/gillnet fisheries in Sabah waters between 1988 and 1998

Figure 12. Catch trend of hook-and-line fisheries in Sabah waters between 1988 and 1998

Hla Win and Khin Maung Aye: Small-scale fisheries in Myanmar

Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries
Yangon, Myanmar

Introduction

Small-scale fisheries contribute over 50 percent to the total national catch. This report is primarily concerned with traditional fisheries, such as fishing with indigenous fishing gear, fishing for daily family consumption and income in coastal and brackish water areas, and flooded and open water bodies. However, frequent references are made to other types of fisheries, such as freshwater fisheries and offshore fisheries in order to put the small-scale sector in a proper perspective.

Fish is an important source of protein and it contributes up to 80 percent of daily protein consumption for the 51 million people in Myanmar. The main role of fisheries in Myanmar is to be a provider of food and employment. The production for 1999 amounts to 1.19 million tonnes of which marine fisheries accounts for 896 530 tonnes, or 67 percent of total production. The per capita consumption of fish is 22.7 kg. Freshwater fisheries including aquaculture provide 33 percent of the total production. Consumers still prefer freshwater fish, which sell at high prices. Marine fish is available at much lower prices and increasing quantities of it are available in the markets.

Small-scale coastal fisheries have great potential for development. In spite of having reached a considerable level through increased production, investments have been mainly been directed towards industrial fisheries and aquaculture.

The productivity of small-scale fisheries in Myanmar is attributed to the use of traditional fishing gear and methods. Priority should be given to the development of boat design, construction, fishing gear and methods. There is a shortage of appropriate fishing gear and equipment, engine spare parts and fuel. Myanmar still relies on imports. The country needs domestic manufacturers of fishing equipment. With local manufacturing of fishing materials and equipment, leading to a sufficient supply of cheap and high-grade fishing materials, readily available to fishermen, the production of the small-scale sector would be boosted substantially.

The total export production amounted to 144 623.85 tonnes with a value of US$218 million during 2000-2001. The export of fisheries products has an upward trend. The prospect of small-scale fisheries development in Myanmar is certainly bright since the resource potential is great and a huge market is waiting on the doorstep because of the big gap between demand and supply of fish in the international markets.

Current status of small-scale fisheries

Small-scale fishing activities in coastal areas are carried out within 5 nautical miles away from the shoreline in the Rakhine coast and 10 nautical miles in the Ayeyarwady and Taninthayi coasts. Fishing is done by set fishing gear without boat or fishing gear with non-mechanized boats. If the boat is mechanized to assist moving fishing gear the engine should not exceed 12 HP and the overall length of the boat should not be more than 30 feet. The fishing season is from the beginning of September to the last day of June the following year. In fact, due to the severity of the weather during the monsoon season the actual fishing period is only seven months.

Fisheries resources

Myanmar has a coastline that stretches approximately from 21°N to 10°N over a distance of 1 800 km. With its large number of estuaries and islands, the total coastline will be close to 3 000 km. The continental shelf (0-200 metre depth) covers an area of 225 000 km².

Since the total investment in the marine fisheries sector is considerable, it was felt that at least a rough estimate of marine fisheries resources should be made, so that the risk of overfishing, overinvestment and consequent financial failure could be avoided.

With a view to identify new fishing grounds, stocks and a rationale for exploitation, a marine fisheries resource survey and exploratory fishing project was carried out with the assistance of FAO during 1979-83. Project activities consisted of acoustic/experimental fishing surveys with R.V. Fridtjof Nansan and trawl surveys with a vessel contributed by Myanmar.

According to surveys undertaken in marine fisheries, about 1.0 million tonnes of pelagic fish and 0.8 million tonnes of demersal fish exist as biomass in Myanmar marine fisheries waters. Out of the total biomass 0.5 million tonnes of pelagic fish and 0.55 million tonnes of demersal fish have been identified as total allowable catch or annual maximum sustainable yield (MSY).

Table 1: Total biomass and MSY in Myanmar marine waters

Area	Biomass			MSY
	Demersal	Pelagic	Total	Demersal	Pelagic	Total
	[million tonnes]
Rakhine	0.194	0.175	0.369	0.160	0.087	0.247
Delta (Yangon, Ayeyarwady, Mon)	0.334	0.505	0.839	0.220	0.252	0.472
Thanitharyi	0.256	0.295	0.551	0.170	0.147	0.317
Total	0.784	0.975	1.759	0.550	0.486	1.036

Since the surveys were conducted two decades ago a new survey is needed to identify the standing stock and MSY with the help of modern equipment and advanced technology.

Small-scale fishing gear

The common types of fishing gear in small-scale fisheries are lift net, stake net and cast net for onshore fisheries, gillnet, drift net, small shore seine, set net and hook and line for inshore fisheries. Small-scale fishery is done mainly with passive fishing techniques, catching the fish by luring it or by chance. The most important and active fishing gear types are the encircling gillnet used for catching Hilsa species and the seine for small fishes such as anchovies and mackerels.

The small-scale fisheries sector has succeeded, to some extent, in increasing production due to mechanization of the craft and the introduction of imported synthetic fishing nets.

Table 2: Number of fishing implements and boats in inshore areas (1998-99)

Area	Implement	Boat (mechanized)	Boat (non-mechanized)	Boat Total
Thaninthayi	17 997	10 533	1 471	12 004
Ayeyarwady	3 220	361	1 368	1 729
Yangon	124	124	-	124
Mon	1 959	1 103	856	1 959
Rakhine	9 128	2 124	7 025	9 149
Total	32 428	14 245	10 720	24 965

Production

It is reported that the catch of traditional fishing gear without boat and inshore gear is about 60 viss per month (1 kg = 0.625 viss) and the catch with mechanized boats about 150 viss per month. There are fluctuations depending on season and the kind of fish caught.

Table 3: Inshore landing, indigenous fishing implements with small boats and not more than 12 HP in 1999-2000

State/Division	Implement of catch		Boat and landing		Total
	Number	Weight (ton)	Number	Weight (ton)	Weight (ton)
Rakhine	9 128	6 264.31	9 149	15 696.81	21 961.12
Ayeyarwady	3 230	2 216.66	1 729	2 966.42	5 183.08
Yangon	124	85.09	124	212.74	297.83
Mon	1 959	1 344.41	1 959	3 361.03	4 705.44
Thaninthayi	17 997	12 350.88	12 004	20 595.10	32 945.98
Total	32 438	22 261.35	24 965	42 832.10	65 093.45

Due to the long coastline and poor access to remote scattered fishing villages it is hard to collect the data from these remote areas. Nevertheless, based on experience and some sampling it is estimated that the total landing from the area is about two times in weight and the total production from the inshore areas is taken as 195 280.45 tons.

Small-scale fisheries management schemes

The Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries is responsible for the development of the livestock and fisheries sector. Under the ministry, the Department of Fisheries is the sole competent authority for fisheries management, conservation of resources, providing extension services, conducting research and compiling national statistics in fisheries and fisheries-related infrastructure.

Though Myanmar marine fisheries have been steadily growing it is found that the diverse aquatic resources are not yet fully utilized. Catch reports, landing statistics and frequent research and surveys show the possibility of further expansion of fishing capacities and efforts for these underutilized resources. Fisheries management is pursued by proper licensing, prescribing exploitable species, prescribing environmentally friendly fishing gear and methods and regulating closed areas, closed season, etc.

Management activities should be based on assessments of the available fisheries resources, existing technology and markets, social and economic conditions, impact of other economic activities and other relevant factors, including foreign operation, where applicable. The objectives are to provide a legislative framework for a fisheries management system and to ensure, as much as possible, that both the fisheries people and the authorities concerned perform their roles within a sustainable framework.

Management measures

In order to conduct proper fisheries management the government has promulgated four fisheries laws. The main features of these laws relating to management are:

• reduction and eradication of mortality caused by men apart from legal fishing,
• preservation of areas, habitats and fishing grounds,
• protection of specific stocks and species,
• exploitation of resources on a rational, sustainable basis,
• inhibition of environment adverse effects on the industry and environment deterioration induced by the industry, and
• enforcement of fisheries laws and regulations.

In expending and promoting the fisheries industry, the Department of Fisheries exercises the above practices, making sure that there is no depletion of resources, environmental degradation or overfishing.

To conserve the juvenile fish and shrimp and to avoid conflicts between artisanal fishermen and trawlers, trawling is banned within five miles from the shoreline at the Rakhine coast and within ten miles from the shoreline in the Ayeyarwady and Taninthayi coasts. In addition, July and August are declared as closed season.

As most marine production comes from artisanal fishermen, it is essential to fulfil the needs of small-scale indigenous fishermen communities by increasing their income and improving their livelihood and their environment. Accordingly, zoning of fishing is based on the policy of protecting local fisheries. The Department of Fisheries gives priority to local fishermen by allowing them to operate in all zones. As declared in the Territorial Sea and Maritime Zone Law the waters between baseline and coast are reserved for local fishermen.

The rapid increase in demand for marine high-quality products has significantly accelerated the exploitation of shrimp and other demersal resources, resulting in resource use conflicts and violence between trawlers and small-scale fishermen. To ensure a more equitable exploitation and distribution of resources and to support the sustainability of small-scale artisanal fisheries, efforts have been made by the fisheries department to limit the size and engine power of fishing boats in inshore areas. For effective management and control the department also determines the type of fisheries, the volume of business and method of fishing, the species of fish permitted to be caught, the size of the fish, the fishing implements and the fishing grounds. These conditions are attached to all fishing licenses.

Minimum mesh sizes and minimum catchable sizes for the main economic fish species have been established based on the rule of expansion and protection of the fisheries resources. For instance, the mesh size on fish trawl cod ends shall not be smaller than 2.5 inches, and 2 inches for the shrimp trawl cod ends. For the large mesh drift net, the minimum mesh size shall be 8 inches and for small mesh drift nets the size shall be 3.5 inches.

Socioeconomics

The total marine population engaged in fishing is 2 646 710 fisherfolk. They are broadly classified into two categories based on the nature of their work, as full-time and part-time fishermen. Full-time fishermen are those who have no income other than from fishing. Part-time fishermen are those who earn income from both fishing and other activities. Besides fishing, they may engage in fish processing, marketing and mending of fishing gear. As the income from fishing is seasonal and the bulk of the earning is often obtained during a few months of the years, fishermen are also involved in other activities such as agriculture and other works.

The majority of the fishermen do not own fishing vessels. Fishing vessels are owned by absentee boat owners, who take a major share of the catch. Due to the lack of surveys and of other information, the financial patterns among fishing communities are unknown. Collection of baseline information is already being made by fisheries officers in order to obtain a better understanding of the traditional fisheries system of the country.

Policy and objectives

The sectoral policies and principal objectives of the fisheries sector are

• to promote all-round development in the livestock and fisheries sector,
• to increase fish production for domestic consumption and share the surplus with neighbouring countries,
• to encourage the expansion of marine and freshwater aquaculture and
• to improve the socioeconomic status of fishing communities.

Requirements for the development of small-scale fisheries

1. Assess the potential of marine and coastal living resources including underutilized and unutilized stocks and species; develop methodologies and take measures for their conservation and sustainable use; and undertake studies on maximum sustainable yields of the various fish species.

2. Encourage research and develop long-term monitoring programmes, including databases, as well as information exchange with international conservation communities for technical and logistic support.

3. Develop and implement strategies for the sustainable use of marine living resources, taking into account the special needs and interests of small-scale artisanal fishermen, local communities and indigenous people to meet nutritional and other development needs, integrate small-scale fisheries development in marine and coastal planning taking into account their interest and, where appropriate, encourage representation of fishermen, small-scale fish workers, women, local communities and indigenous people.

Besides the national effort to support small-scale fisheries development, we need assistance from international fisheries-related agencies such as FAO, NACA, BOBP and SEAFDEC. Apart from the government’s efforts in fisheries development, international or regional collaboration is needed in the following areas:

a. assessment of fisheries resources,
b. development of appropriate technology,
c. training of skilled manpower,
d. establishment of extension services,
e. identification and preparation of projects,
f. pilot or pioneering fishing operation and
g. funding schemes for commercial operation.

Jonathan O. Dickson: Current status of small-scale fisheries in the Philippines

Chief, Fishing Technology Division
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
Manila, Philippines

Introduction

Small-scale fishing is synonymous to artisanal, municipal, coastal and subsistence fishing. In the Philippines, however, we normally call it municipal fisheries.

More specifically, ‘subsistence fisheries’ refers to fisheries wherein fishing units catch marine products mainly for household consumption. ‘Coastal fisheries’ are defined as fisheries by fishing ground or area. In the Philippines, we use the range from 0 to 15 km to describe coastal fisheries. Countries differentiate their definition by water depth (SEAFDEC 2000).

Municipal fisheries is defined as small-scale fisheries with boats of less than 3 GT that are allowed to operate in Zone 1, from shoreline to 15 km, and Zone 2, from 15 km to the EEZ limit (SEAFDEC 2000). In this sub-sector, the persons involved are referred to as municipal fisherfolk who are directly or indirectly engaged in municipal fishing and other related fishing activities (BFAR 2001). These fisherfolk use bancas (a type of boat) with a capacity of 2-5 persons, usually without engine, and fishing gear like hook and line, gillnet and others (BFAR 1987).

By area of operation, municipal fisheries can be classified into two types, namely: marine municipal fisheries in coastal waters and inland municipal fisheries for freshwater areas such as lakes, rivers and streams.

According to the BFAR Fisheries Profile 2000, this sector has contributed 943 951 tonnes or 32.91 percent of the country’s total fish production, valued at Peso32.5 billion, which is equivalent to 34 percent of the value.

Figure 1. Fisheries production by sector, 2000

Based on the National Statistics Office 1990 Census of Population and Housing, the number of municipal fisherfolk employed totalled 374 408 or 46.40 percent of the 806 929 fisherfolk.

Figure 2. Fisheries employment by sector

Municipal fisheries structure

Fishing units

The municipal fishing bancas for the year 2000, categorized as motorized and non-motorized, totalled 177 627 and 292 180 units, respectively. The estimated fish production of these bancas were 289 131.84 tonnes for motorized bancas or 37.81 percent, and for non-motorized bancas 475 595.16 tonnes or 62.19 percent. (BFAR 2000)

The bancas used by the municipal fishermen have a relatively narrow hull, the base of which is a dugout made of tropical hardwood, and the walls are of plywood. The size ranges from 7 to 9 m in length, and if motorized, they are powered with 6 to 16 HP petrol engines. Most of them are equipped with outriggers for stabilization; those without outriggers only use sails and paddles. Small-scale fishermen also use bamboo rafts to carry their small fishing gear in shallow waters of the coast where bancas cannot operate. (BFAR-RFTC Project Coordinating Staff 1981)

Fishing gear

The main municipal fishing gear types in the Philippines are gillnet, hook and line, fish corral, beach seine, baby trawl, ring net, Danish seine, spear, long line, purse seine, fish pot, bag net, crab lift net, troll line, jigger, push net, round haul seine, filter net, drive-in net, lift net, fyke net, pole and line, drift filter net, cast net and others.

Fishing grounds

In 1995, there were at least 13 fishing grounds considered as major production areas for the municipal sub-sector. The top four highest producing areas were the Visayan Sea with 11.28 percent, followed by the Moro Gulf with 9.41 percent, the East Sulu Sea with 9.01 percent and the Bohol Sea with 9.10 percent (Table 1).

Table 1. Marine municipal fisheries production by main fishing grounds, 1995, BFAR Fisheries Profile 2000

Fishing ground	Total [tonnes]	% of total
Visayan Sea	88 616	11.28
Moro Gulf	73 938	9.41
East Sulu Sea	71 486	9.10
Bohol Sea	70 756	9.01
Guimaras Strait	51 332	6.54
Leyte Gulf	49 901	6.35
West Palawan Waters	46 948	5.98
South Sulu Sea	42 019	5.35
Lamon Bay	41 862	5.33
Samar Sea	40 236	5.12
Davao Gulf	33 743	4.30
Cuyo Pass	25 587	3.26
Tayabas Bay	17 498	2.23
Other	131 447	16.74
Total	785 369	100.00

Regional municipal production

In terms of production by region, Region IV contributed 257 835 tonnes or 27.31 percent, followed by Region VI with 134 227 tonnes or 14.22 percent and Region IX with 122 479 tonnes or 12.97 percent (Table 2).

Table 2. Municipal fisheries production by region, 2000 (in tonnes), BFAR Fisheries Profile, 2000

Region	Marine	Inland	Total	% of total
NCR	3 982	0	3 982	0.422
CAR	0	1 075	1 075	0.114
I	22 844	548	23 392	2.478
II	13 809	3 228	17 037	1.805
III	8 867	2 309	11 176	1.184
IV	153 004	104 831	257 835	27.314
V	73 247	556	73 803	7.819
VI	132 838	1 389	134 227	14.220
VII	47 424	58	47 482	5.030
VIII	37 199	4	37 203	3.941
IX	122 225	254	122 479	12.975
X	16 840	239	17 079	1.809
XI	47 197	922	48 119	5.098
XII	6 295	13 378	19 673	2.084
XIII	63 709	2 890	66 599	7.055
ARMM	44 344	18 446	62 790	6.652
Total	793 824	150 127	943 951	100.000

Fisheries management schemes for small-scale/municipal fisheries

The fisheries resource management project (FRMP)

FRMP is a project executed by the Department of Agriculture through the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources and each Department of Agriculture regional office. It is co-financed by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund of Japan (OECF) and is implemented in six years from 1999 to 2004.

The project financing comes from the loan proceeds under the ADB Loan No. 1562 PHI (SF); ADB Loan No. 1563 PHI and OECF-JBIC PH-P197. Table 3 shows the total project cost per financing agreement.

Table 3. Total project cost per financing agreement

	In original currency	Philippine Peso
Loan	ADB 1562 PHI - SDR11.022 M	P484 431 000.00
proceeds	ADB 1563 PHI - US$20.22 M	556 479 000.00
	JBIC PH-P197 - YEN2.428 M	622 017 000.00
	Total loan proceeds	P1 662 927 000.00
Peso	GOP	P532 249 000.00
counterpart	LGU	657 421 000.00
	Total peso counterpart	P1 189 670 000.00
Total		P2 852 597 000.00

The project is an impetus on the part of the government to shift the sector focus from increasing capture fisheries production to fisheries resource protection, conservation and sustainable management. It is a reflection of the demand of municipal fisherfolk for public assistance to protect their basic livelihood and the national and local governments’ concern over poverty and environmental degradation. The objectives of the project are to:

• achieve sustainable development of the fisheries sector and
• reduce poverty among municipal fisherfolk.

The primary objective is to reverse the trend of the fisheries resource depletion in municipal waters.

The project covers 100 municipalities in 18 bays, 11 of which were formerly under the Fisheries Sector Programme (FSP), namely Calauag Bay, San Miguel Bay, Tayabas Bay, Ragay Gulf, Lagonoy Gulf, Sorsogon Bay, Carigara Bay, San Pedro Bay, Ormoc Bay, Sogod Bay, Panguil Bay and seven new gulfs and bays, namely Honda Bay, Puerto Princesa Bay, Davao Gulf, Lingayen Gulf, Gingoog Bay, Butuan Bay and Sapian Bayare.

One of the project components is the coastal resource management (CRM) planning and implementation. This will be done through an information, education and communication campaign that will be launched to elicit the participation of various stakeholder groups, especially municipal fisherfolk in CRM planning and implementation.

Key strategies under this are:

a) Resource and social assessments (RSA) which include rapid social appraisal;

b) Through the RSAs, CRM plans will be developed in the new bays and updated in the old bays after consultation among the stakeholders;

c) Guided by the CRM plans, resource rehabilitation will be implemented to include:

• establishment of fish sanctuaries
• mangrove reforestation and
• management of fish stocks

FRMP, in line with its approach to reach a more sustainable fisheries management strategy, has prioritized the establishment of marine protected areas and the rehabilitation of damaged habitats. To date, this project has undertaken the establishment and maintenance of 106 fish sanctuaries in 66 municipalities, the rehabilitation of 26 mangrove areas in 26 municipalities and the maintenance of the rehabilitated portion of the Irawan River in Puerto Princesa City.

The community-based coastal resource management programme (CB-CRM)

This project is one of the components under the BFAR programme in the Ginintuang Masaganang Ani. It provides technical assistance and training to coastal communities and local government for managing their coastal resources. This will assist the communities in developing coastal resource management plans through a participatory process. The main activities include: territorial delineation of the bays, control of fishing effort, law enforcement, management and conservation of marine habitats, resource and ecological assessments, community organizing and involvement of local government units.

Accomplishments

CRM activities follow plans based on scientifically gathered data. Under FRMP, RSAs in priority bays were conducted. RSAs for Lingayen Gulf, Honda Bay, Puerto Princesa Bay and Sapian Bay are being prepared for the final report. RSAs for Gingoog Bay, Butuan Bay, Davao Gulf, Ormoc Bay, San Pedro Bay and Sogod Bay are still ongoing.

Likewise, 59 percent of the project’s 1063 coastal barangays have prepared their community action plans which serve as inputs to the municipal CRM plans. The CRM plans will include boundaries properly delineated to avoid conflict. Pilot activities have already been undertaken in Davao Gulf, Butuan Bay and Sapian Bay (BFAR-FRMP, 2001).

In terms of the implementation of integrated coastal resource management in Puerto Princesa City, a river/watershed eco-profiling project was conducted. The delineation and mapping of management areas in Honda and Puerto Princesa bays were realized. Planting of forest tree seedlings in the watershed of the Magarwak River in Honda Bay covering 20 ha was also conducted.

The designing of a comprehensive community-based fisheries laws enforcement system is being undertaken. In addition, a model municipal fisheries ordinance is being distributed for adoption through a guidebook. Patrol boats are acquired in order to improve the capability of the Bantay Dagat (law enforcement).

On the Geographic Information System, the ground verification of satellite data, i.e. a base and coastal habitat map, has been completed. The ground validation of Sapian Bay focusing on the assessment of substrate, sea grass, coral reef, mangrove forests and land use was conducted.

In terms of income diversification, FRMP continuously engaged the services of NGOs in organizing communities and fisherfolk for their more effective involvement in bays to include Carigara Bay, Butuan Bay, Gingoog Bay, Ragay Gulf, Honda Bay, Calauag Bay, Puerto Princesa Bay, Tayabas Bay, Lagonoy Gulf, Sapian Bay, San Pedro Bay, Davao Gulf, Lingayen Gulf, Panguil Bay and Sorsogon Bay. The fisherfolk organizations have acquired internal savings and at least 51 micro-enterprises have been pilot tested by a number of cooperatives and fisherfolk organizations (BFAR-FRMP, 2001).

The implementation of the CB-CRM programmes and projects involves one or a combination of the following interventions, such as technology for increased fish production, artificial reefs, mangrove reforestation, policy formulation on environmental protection and resource management, alternative livelihood development and credit support, establishment and operation of protected areas and marine sanctuaries, and institutional capability development (Pomeroy and Carlos, 1997).

The SEAFDEC/IDRC community fisheries resource management project

This project is a development-oriented research project specifically for Malalison Island in Panay, which integrates biology, economics, sociology, engineering and public administration in its studies. It is a two-phase project. Phase I concentrates its activities on community organizing, institution building and introducing alternative livelihoods, i.e. seaweed farming. Phase II implements the territorial use rights in fisheries and tests the deployment of prototype concrete artificial reefs including impact assessments, institutional arrangements in fisheries co-management, ethnographic studies, economics of sea-farming techniques and management of fisheries cooperatives (Agbayani, 1997).

Fisheries administrative orders and regulations applied to small-scale fisheries

As one of the Republic Act (RA) 8550 policies, the government manages fisheries and aquatic resources in a manner consistent with the concept of an integrated coastal area management in specific natural fisheries management areas, appropriately supported by research, technical services and guidance. Thus, BFAR has issued various fisheries administrative orders (FAOs):

• FAO 201 provides the list of active gear types banned for operation in municipal waters, bays and fisheries management areas.
• FAO 202 provides guidelines on the banning of coral exploitation and exportation.
• FAO 203 is on banning of fishing by means of muro-ami and the like which is destructive to coral reefs and other marine habitats.
• FAO 204 is on restricting the use of super lights in Philippine waters.
• FAO 206 provides guidelines on the disposal of confiscated fish and other items in fishing with explosives and noxious or poisonous substances.
• FAO 208 regulates and implements the conservation of rare, threatened and endangered fisheries/aquatic species.
• FAO 209 provides guidelines on the production, harvesting, handling and transportation of shellfish for implementation by the local governments.
• FAO 216 provides guidelines on the obstruction to navigation in streams, rivers, lakes and bays.
• FAO 217 provides guidelines on the obstruction to defined migration paths.

Fisheries and aquatic resource management councils

Linked to the implementation of RA 8550, Sec. 68 provides for the development of fisheries and aquatic resources in municipal waters and bays by the fisherfolk and their organizations residing within the geographical jurisdiction of the barangays, municipalities or cities with the concerned local government units.

Sec. 69 provides for the establishment of fisheries and aquatic resource management councils (FARMCs) at the national level and in all municipalities/cities abutting municipal waters. The councils will be formed by fisherfolk’s organizations/cooperatives and NGOs in the locality and be assisted by the local government units and other government entities. Consultation and orientation on the formation of the councils is also required before they are organized.

At present, there are at least 6 397 Barangay Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Management Councils (BFARMC), 876 Municipal/City Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Management Councils (M/CFARMCs) and 45 Integrated Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Management Councils (IFARMCs) organized countrywide (Table 3).

Table 3. Number of FARMCs organized by region, BFAR, 2001, National FARMC Programme Management Centre

Region	No. of coastal brgys	No. of BFARMCs organized	No. of coastal municipalities/cities	No. of M/CFARMCs organized	No. of I/FARMCs organized
CAR		2		20	1
I	378	335	53	53	1
II	179	240	25	37	1
III	223	201	37	40	1
IV	1 671	1 054	185	145	13
V	1 067	956	94	91	2
VI	771	398	83	70	9
VII	1 023	318	110	99	3
VIII	1 557	856	122	68	1
IX	605	501	61	60	2
X	292	275	44	41	5
XI	330	299	36	32	3
XII	370	210	34	27	2
XIII	582	389	65	50	-
ARMM	615	363	65	43	1
Total	9 663	6397	1014	876	45

RA 8550 also provides the legal framework for the role of National Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Management Councils (NFARMC), M/CFARMC and IFARMC. Fisheries Administrative Order (FAO) 196 provides the guidelines creating and implementing FARMCs. The creation of a FARMC will institutionalize the major participation of the fisherfolk and other resource users in the planning and formulation of policies and programmes for the management, conservation, protection and sustainable development of fisheries and aquatic resources.

The NFARMC functions are 1) assisting in the formulation of national policies for the protection, sustainable development and management of fisheries and aquatic resources for the approval of the Secretary; 2) assisting the fisheries department in the preparation of the National Fisheries and Industry Development Plan.

On the other hand, BFARMCs and LFARMCs will serve in an advisory capacity to the local government units, whereas the M/CFARMCs exercise functions such as assisting in the preparation of the municipal fisheries development plan and submit this plan to the Municipal Development Council, recommend the enactment of municipal fisheries ordinances to the sangguniang bayan or sangguniang panlungsod through its committee on fisheries, assist in the enforcement of fisheries laws, rules and regulations in municipal waters and advise the sangguniang bayan or panlungsod on fisheries matters through its committee on fisheries, if such has been organized.

The IFARMC functions are as follows:

• assist in the preparation of the Integrated Fisheries Development Plan and submit the plan to the concerned municipal development councils;
• recommend the enactment of integrated fisheries ordinances to the concerned sangguniang bayan or panlungsod through its committee on fisheries, if such has been organized;
• assist in the enforcement of fisheries laws, rules and regulations in concerned municipal waters; advise the concerned sangguniang bayan or panlungsod on fisheries matters through its committee on fisheries, if such has been organized.

In addition, Executive Order (EO) No. 240 was initially the offshoot of the creation of FARMCs in barangays, cities and municipalities. Its implementing guidelines elaborate the function of the FARMCs. Its framework seeks the enhancement of their empowerment through meaningful participation in the management, development and protection of fisheries and aquatic resources for sustainable production. This executive order enumerates the primary functions such as in the preparation and advisory role in fisheries and aquatic resource management policies and plans for integration into the local development plan. It also provides the local government units and special agencies with guidelines including the evaluation of all projects and applications. These guidelines concern the development and implementation of projects and issuance of permits and licenses for the appropriate use of the resources and to ensure that resource use limits and controls are imposed.

Joint Administrative Order No. 2, which implements the rules and regulations of EO 240 issued by the departments of Agriculture (DA), Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Interior and Local Government (DILG) and Justice (DOJ), provided the specific powers and functions under sections 11, 14, 17 and 20. In addition, Joint Administrative Order No. 3, known as the “Implementing Guidelines on the Granting of Preferential Treatment to Small Fisherfolk relative to the 15-Km Municipal Waters”, specified the functions of MFARMC.

These guidelines will determine a definite zone or zones within municipal waters. A registry of municipal fisherfolk and their organization will also be maintained. The FARMCs existing or those to be organized adopt the structural framework illustrated in Figure 3.

FARMCs have carried out significant activities relative to their functions. At the national level, they have organized forums, conferences and workshops to deliberate and review the various fisheries administrative orders. Besides, the councils continuously strengthen the current mechanism addressing specific fisheries issues affecting the small-scale fisherfolk. The formulation of a national FARMC programme of key strategic thrusts has been undertaken.

Figure 3. Structural framework of the Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Management Council (FARMC)

The FARMC secretariat was pledged to be revitalized to serve as the link between local fisherfolk, the bureaucracy and the FARMC leadership. In addition, activities are being organized such as the formulation of an effective management scheme for the fisherfolk mariculture parks project and fisherfolk-BFAR-PNP project on networking coastal communities for fisheries laws enforcement, the Coastal Information Network. The signing of a memorandum of agreement for an effective surveillance and community-based law enforcement programme has been accomplished. The government, through the DA Secretary, has vowed to ensure the broad and meaningful participation of the fisherfolk sector in the execution of RA 8435 and RA 8550.

Republic Act (RA) 7160, also known as the Local Government Code of 1991, had made some structural changes in terms of the devolution of functions related to the transfer of basic services and technology to the fishing communities. This code intends to give greater autonomy to local government units in the management of their aquatic resources.

In relation to this, a memorandum of agreement between DA and DILG would authorize the devolution of fisheries regulatory functions within municipal waters. The jurisdiction over the municipal waters has been transferred to the local government units concerned. The functions include the following:

• Enforcement of fisheries laws in municipal waters including the conservation of mangroves [Section 17 (b), (2), (i)];
• Issuance of licenses for the operation of fishing vessels of three tons or less [Section 149, (b), (3)];
• Granting of fisheries privileges to erect fish corrals, oyster, mussel or other aquatic beds or bangus fry areas [Section 149, (b), (1)];
• Granting privileges to gather or catch bangus fry, prawn fry or fry of other species of fish [Section 149, (b), (2)];
• Enactment of the ordinance penalizing the use of explosive, obnoxious or poisonous substances, electricity, muro-ami and other deleterious methods of fishing. The sangguniang bayan concerned shall also have the authority to prosecute any violation of the provisions of applicable fisheries laws [Section 149, (b), (3)];
• Protection of the marine environment and imposition of appropriate penalties for acts which endanger the environment such as dynamite fishing and other activities which result in pollution or ecological imbalance [Section 447, (a), (1),(vi)];
• Authorization of the establishment and operation of ferries, wharves and other structures. Also included are marine and seashore activities intended to accelerate productivity [Section 447, (a), (5), (iii)];
• Regulation of the preparation and sale of fish for public consumption [Section 447, (a), (5), (iv)]; and
• Approval of measures and adoption of quarantine regulations to prevent the introduction and spread of diseases [Section 447, (a), (5) (xii)]

The other functions, which were devolved and had caused the exercise of general supervision of local government units are:

• Issuance of permits to construct fish cages within municipal waters
• Issuance of permits to gather aquarium fishes within municipal waters
• Issuance of permits to gather kapis shells within municipal waters
• Issuance of permits to establish seaweed farms within municipal waters
• Issuance of licenses to establish culture pearls within municipal waters
• Issuance of auxiliary invoice to transport fish and fisheries products, and
• Establishment of closed season in municipal waters

Section 3 (f) indicated that local government units might group themselves, consolidate or coordinate their efforts, services and resources for purposes commonly beneficial to them. “The local government units shall share with the national government the responsibility in the management and maintenance of ecological balance within their territorial jurisdiction, subject to the provisions of RA7160 and national policies.”

Section 17 on the Basic Services and Facilities: “local government units shall endeavour to be self reliant and shall continue exercising the powers and discharging the duties and functions currently vested upon them. They shall exercise other powers and discharge such other functions and responsibilities as are necessary, appropriate or incidental to the efficient and effective provision of the basic services enumerated such as 1) agricultural support services, infrastructure facilities and maintenance of barangay roads and water supply systems as well as satellite or public market; 2) extension and onsite research services and facilities related to agriculture and fisheries activities; and 3) assistance in the organization of farmers’ and fishermen’s cooperatives and other collective organizations as well as transfer of appropriate technology”.

Under Section 447 (a) (1) (vi), “the sangguniang bayan shall enact ordinances, approved resolutions and appropriate funds for the general welfare of the municipality and its inhabitants and in accordance the local government unit shall protect the environment and impose appropriate penalties for acts which endanger the environment such as dynamite fishing and other forms of destructive fishing ... and smuggling of natural resource products and endangered species of flora and fauna, and .... such other activities which result in pollution, acceleration of eutrophication of rivers and lakes or of ecological imbalance”.

Under Section 458 (a) (1) (vi), “the sangguniang panglungsod shall enact ordinances, approved resolutions and appropriate funds for the general welfare of the municipality and its inhabitants and in accordance the local government unit shall protect the environment and impose appropriate penalties for acts which endanger the environment such as dynamite fishing and other forms of destructive fishing ... and smuggling of natural resource products and endangered species of flora and fauna, and such other activities which results in pollution, acceleration of eutrophication of rivers and lakes or of ecological imbalance”.

Under Section 465 (a) (3) (v), “the provincial governor shall adopt measures to safeguard and conserve ... marine, forest and other resources of the province, in coordination with the mayors of component cities and municipalities ... protect the funds, credit and other properties of the provinces thereof”.

Under Section 468, (a) (1) (vi), “the sangguniang panlalawigan shall approve ordinances and pass resolutions necessary for an efficient and effective provincial government and in this connection shall protect the environment and impose appropriate penalties for acts which endanger the environment such as dynamite fishing and other forms of destructive fishing ... and smuggling of natural resource products and endangered species of flora and fauna, and .... such other activities which results in pollution, acceleration of eutrophication of rivers and lakes or of ecological imbalance”.

Problems of the small-scale fisheries industry (FIRM and DAP 1987)

The problems and needs of the municipal fisheries industry are classified into industrial, socioeconomic, political and institutional.

1. Industrial

• low fish production
• underutilization of fisheries resources
• mal exploitation of some fishing grounds
• proliferation of illegal fishing
• lack of ice plants and cold storage facilities
• lack of effective organizational and extension machinery
• dearth of integrated research systems
• poor delivery and dissemination of technological packages
• ineffective promotion and implementation of fishing industry financing programmes

2. Socioeconomic

• inequities in access to resources, opportunities and sources

3. Political

• unequal, inadequate and poor delivery of government services
• mal intervention of local officials especially during site selection, endorsement and implementation of a fisheries project
• poor peace and order situation

4. Institutional

• poor accessibility to institutional e.g. technical, extension, information and financial support

Furthermore, a study conducted by the BFAR RFTC project coordinating staff in 1981 had identified some major constraints in small-scale fisheries industry as follows: a) dearth of trained manpower; b) few fish markets; c) dynamite fishing; d) poaching by alien fishermen; e) competition from commercial fishing boats; f) increasing fuel costs and g) lack of mechanization.

Solutions to these constraints (FIRM and DAP 1987)

To address these problems, the following measures may be considered:

1. Industrial

• Introduction of new and modern fishing gear and technology
• Promotion of fish conservation measures and proper resource utilization by adopting the concept of maximum sustainable yield
• Support for fisheries infrastructure projects such as ice plants, fish storage and transport facilities, ports, wharves and markets
• Development of an effective organizational extension machinery
• Sustaining and strengthening research and development and extension services
• Development of a more effective information and technological transfer system
• Development and installation of a more effective warden system
• Development of effective financing programmes
• Strengthening rural credit systems
• Identification, prioritization and solution of fisheries-related problems

2. Socioeconomic

• Empowerment of the people through community organizations for more effective implementation of socioeconomic projects
• Participation of subsistence fishermen in designing policies, strategies and programmes involving them
• Promotion of fisheries-related alternative income-generating projects e.g. net making, boat building, engine repair and maintenance and salt making
• Development of an insurance programme to benefit the small-scale fishermen and their families

3. Political

• Development of a more effective delivery of government services to small-scale fishermen through proper decentralization of government efforts
• Increase government support for fisheries research and extension
• Limited and proper intervention of local officials in the project
• Promotion of peace and order

4. Institutional

• Carry out institutional reforms to democratize access by the sustenance fishermen to services, resources and opportunities
• Check the duplication of functions and fragmented efforts towards fisheries development by synchronization/integration of service delivery of all line agencies

Future development of a decentralized small-scale fisheries management scheme

A decentralized system of management of coastal resources has long been acclaimed. The local governments and resource users were appraised to become part and parcel of the development and sustenance of community-based management and co-management projects and programmes. It is recognized that the early and continuing involvement of project beneficiaries is one of the factors that contribute to the success of the project development, implementation and evaluation. (Pomeroy et al. 1996)

Pomeroy et al. (1996) noted in an impact evaluation study that future CBCRM projects should be build on the existing occupational multiplicity of most fishermen and fishing households. These interventions are more likely to be sustainable since they would fit into the successful adaptive strategy of occupational multiplicity. Community organizing and consensus building are also encouraged. But such a strategy may experience difficulties, especially where the people in the community have no history of collective action.

Support from government through legislation, funding and enforcement is necessary to sustain such interventions. In most instances, local initiatives require collaboration with government to enforce user rights. It is crucial to continue the capability-building efforts from various sectors to enhance empowerment and a sense of reliance among municipal fishermen. The schemes must not only cover a short range but consider the long-term impact of conservation measures for the overall benefit of the users of municipal waters.

Jate Pimoljinda: Small-scale fisheries management in Thailand

Andaman Sea Fisheries Development Centre
Department of Fisheries, Phuket, Thailand

Current status of small-scale fisheries in Thailand

Marine fisheries in Thailand have developed rapidly with the introduction of otter board trawling in Thai waters in 1960. As a result, the coastal marine fisheries resources have been overexploited. At present trawlers encroach the protected areas within 3 km of the shoreline and illegally enter bays for fishing. This results in the destruction of coastal resources and habitats and creates conflicts with small-scale fishermen who have the exclusive right for fishing in these areas. For their survival, these fishermen, who normally fish with artisanal fishing gear for household consumption and to earn some additional money, have to improve their gear to catch more fish to compete with those trawlers that encroach on the prohibited areas. The typical small-scale fishing boat, the long-tailed boat, that used to be a non-powered boat in the past, has been modified by installing an engine to enable it to fish further offshore. The competition for fisheries resources among the different groups of fishermen further increases the degradation of coastal fisheries resources.

Marine fisheries in Thailand is done mostly in coastal waters of the 378 000 km² of both the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea coast. Based on the Marine Fisheries Census 1995, the majority of the 47 620 fishing households are small-scale households and only 5 492 or about 10 percent of them are involved in commercial fisheries. Fisheries in coastal areas are characterized as follows:

• Artisanal fishing gear refers to non-powered, outboard-powered and inboard-powered boats of less than 10 gross tonnage with gillnets, traps, set bag nets, push nets, lift nets, hooks and lines, etc.
• Commercial fishing gear consists of trawlers, otter beam trawl, purse seines, surrounding nets, etc, using inboard-powered boats of more than 10 gross tonnage.

The employment of new fishing gear as well as the development of more efficient gear in combination with the constantly increasing number of boats in the Gulf of Thailand and along the Andaman Sea coast have resulted in gradually decreasing catches and have led to overexploitation. To address this problem more research work has to be conducted and law enforcement has to be strengthened. However, due to the limitations in patrolling facilities, manpower and budget, effective monitoring, control and surveillance cannot be achieved and stress remains on the small-scale fisherfolk.

There are 54 538 fishing boats along the coasts of Thailand, both in the Gulf and on the Andaman Sea. These are classified according to the type of fishing gear (from the 1995 Marine Fisheries Census):

• 7 226 trawl nets including otter board trawl, pair trawl and beam trawl.
• 1 288 surrounding nets including anchovy purse seine, Thai purse seine, luring purse seine, mackerel purse seine, bonito purse seine, rocky fish surrounding net and Chinese purse seine.
• 25 946 gillnets including those for king mackerel, mackerel, mullet, whiting, crab and shrimp, trammel net, mackerel encircling gillnet and other gillnets.
• 6 375 traps including fish trap, squid trap, shrimp trap, crab trap, small grouper trap and other traps.
• 2 202 lift nets including anchovy stick-held lift net, black pomfret lift net, crab portable lift net, acetes dip net, fish lift net and other lift nets.
• 2 624 falling nets including squid falling net, anchovy stick-held box net and other cast nets.
• 3 591 push nets of all kinds.
• 5 286 other small scale/artisanal fishing gear including beach seine, clam dredge, bamboo stake trap, set bag net, hook and line and miscellaneous.

In the Thai fisheries laws and regulations do not allow trawling and push netting within 3 km from the shoreline as well as in areas such as the Phang-nga Bay where such activities are specifically prohibited. But in reality, trawlers and push nets have been encroaching into the prohibited areas, thus creating more stress for small-scale fisherfolk.

Experiences in implementing small-scale fisheries management schemes

In the past, small-scale fisheries were subsistence fisheries in the coastal communities using simple fishing gear that does not harm the resources and environment. Today, due to the rapid development of commercial fisheries with modern and effective fishing gear, the marine resources have been depleted and overexploited.

Commercial fishing boats shifted to fish beyond the line 3 km off the shore, but they still fish inside this area and in restricted bays, particularly trawlers. The destruction of undersized aquatic animals and of spawning and nursery grounds in these areas has widened the conflict between the small-scale and commercial fisherfolk.

The Department of Fisheries has addressed this problem through a small-scale fisheries development project launched in the early 1990s. The project aimed to provide essential infrastructure along the coast such as landing sites, piers, freshwater stocking tanks, gear-repairing shelter, etc. To enhance the livelihood of fisherfolk, cages and fish fry were provided and the fishermen were given training courses on gear repairing, boat engine maintenance, fish cage culture methods and fish processing. Artificial reef installations were built to protect nearshore areas for the exclusive use of small-scale fishermen.

There were ministerial regulations on the prohibition of trawlers and push netters to operate within 3000 m from the shoreline throughout the country, as well as in some specific areas. The ministerial regulation issued on 14 December 1998 prohibits every kind of trawler and bag net with motorized boat to fish in the Phang-Nga Bay; the ministerial regulation issued on 11 April 1985 prohibits every kind and every size of trawler, enclosed net and gillnet with a mesh size of less than 4.7 cm to fish in the Phang-Nga Bay and the Krabi area during closed season from 15 April to 15 June, etc. To strengthen these regulations, the Department of Fisheries has established a Fisheries Patrolling Section equipped with patrol boats to conduct monitoring, control and surveillance of illegal fishing along the coast. However, due to the limitations in budget and manpower, efficient enforcement of the law could not be effected. Violations are still detected at present and more than 750 cases are reported every year.

The majority of the small-scale fisherfolk live in poverty and they are stuck with indigenous fishing methods just to feed their families. To change their attitude or to introduce new fishing technologies is rather difficult unless they are proven to be useful, which needs a lot of time.

Solutions to overcome constraints in small-scale fisheries management

The experience gained from the small-scale fisheries development project was that the strategy used in the past was a top-down approach and that the fishermen never understood the objectives of such projects and their process of implementation. In order to achieve better results in the new project, the bottom-up approach was used. The project was implemented in collaboration with FAO/BOBP during 1996-2000. The Phang-nga Bay was selected as the pilot area. The objectives of the project were clarified and the confidence of the fisherfolk in the fisheries officers was gained before the project started. The project activities included the following:

• Management of mangrove resources: Campaign on conservation and protection of mangroves in the target area was initiated by fisherfolk under the supervision of fisheries department officers by installing notice boards “Do not cut the mangrove trees” in mangrove areas. Apart from conservation campaigns, mangrove reforestation and community forest activities have also been performed in these areas.
• Management of sea-grass resources: There are several areas in the Phang-nga Bay that used to be sea-grass beds but many of them were destroyed by human activities such as fishing operations or by pollution. Sea-grass transplantation that was conducted in some areas showed good results with the subsequent appearance of other commercially important aquatic animals in the sea-grass beds.
• Campaign on releasing gravid female blue swimming crab: A large number of gravid females of the blue swimming crab species were sold daily in local markets. To prevent overexploitation of this crab, a campaign releasing the fry of gravid female crabs was initiated. Two sets of cages 2x2x2 m were distributed to the fishing communities in the target area. The gravid female crabs caught were stocked in the cages until they spawned and were then sold. The money obtained from selling these crabs was kept as a revolving fund for the group. With this method, some communities have increased their revolving funds. In addition to the money earned from selling crabs, each member of the fishing group agreed to provide monthly contributions. Every fisherman is obliged to hold at least 3 stocks costing Bath 20 each. At present the revolving funds of the fishing groups amount to more than B100 000.
• Sea ranching activity: the fisheries department provided seeds of shrimp or fish or crab which were released in the natural waters particularly in areas in front of fishing villages, with the participation of the fisherfolk. This activity aimed to promote a sense of ownership and responsible fishing behaviour within the fishing communities for their fisheries resources and the aquatic environment in coastal waters.
• Extension of coastal aquaculture: To encourage aquaculture, particularly cage culture of sea bass and red snapper, fish fry was provided. The fishermen prepared and paid for the cages and feed. This activity supplemented their income.
• Grouping and training: This activity aims to form and strengthen groups within the fishing communities. The members of the fishing communities were divided into two main groups, the fishermen’s group and the students’ group. The fishermen’s group received training on conservation measures, gear and boat-engine repair as well as lectures on fisheries laws and regulations and culture techniques. The students’ group received training on conservation of aquatic resources, which is included in the curriculum of the schools to build awareness about the need to protect the aquatic environment.
• Establishment of information centres: Some communities established information centres by modifying some disused building. These centres store all information by way of newspapers, posters, announcements and other kinds of media. They are also used for other purposes, i.e. as meeting place, reading place, etc.
• Determination of conservation zones: The initiative to determine conservation zones came from the fisherfolk. After the project had been implemented for a period of time, fishermen’s groups asked for buoys to mark areas for the conservation of aquatic habitats and also requested a notice board to warn against fishing operations in these areas.
• Surveillance measures: To protect their fishing grounds from illegal or destructive fishing, the fishermen have grouped themselves and requested the governor of Phang-nga province to designate or appoint them as “Volunteers to protect the aquatic resources in the bay of Phang-nga”. Monitoring, control and surveillance was conducted continuously at night with the competent authority, i.e. the police force, and this activity is still continuing.
• Fishing gear replacement: As mentioned earlier, push net is one of the most destructive fishing gear types in the area. To protect the interests of small-scale fishermen this gear had to be banned. When complaints became serious, some push net operators agreed to use other types of fishing gear, subsidized by the fisheries department. At present, no more push nets can be found in the target villages. Since the coastal resources in Thailand are considered common property, the banning of push nets cannot be done in the target villages only. It has to be implemented all over the bay of Phang-nga, otherwise the objectives of the project will not be achieved. Due to budgetary limitations, this activity has proceeded rather slowly and with limited scope.
• Strategy on persuading large-scale fishermen to participate in coastal resources management: The representative of the Fisheries Association of Phuket, which represents the trawl boat owners, whose operations are particularly destructive, has been frequently invited to attend the bimonthly meeting of the fisherfolk in the target area. The intention was to close the Phang-nga Bay to trawling and to develop a better understanding of the hardships of small-scale fishermen. Finally the chairman of the association was convinced and persuaded the commercial fishing boat operators and owners of fisheries-related businesses to donate money for the construction of artificial reefs at the entrance of the Phang-nga Bay. One of the main functions of these artificial reefs was to prevent trawlers from entering the bay. Some B2 600 000 was donated and artificial reefs were installed on 15 May 1998.
• Establishment of a community fish market: Traditionally fisherfolk sold their catch to middlemen and the middlemen dictated the prices. After the implementation of the project, the idea of establishing local fish markets was presented by a group of fishermen. The intention was to develop a fish market in their community, so that there would be no need to sell fish to the middlemen. All catches were sent to the market and auctioned off. This system provided better benefits to the fishermen and became the main requirement for many fishing communities along the bay.

The results of the community-based fisheries management project implemented in the Phang-nga Bay showed that the described activities and approaches helped to move in the right and appropriate direction for fisheries management. However, as it was a pilot project, many details of the activities needed improvement or modification to achieve a better outcome in the future as well as clearly defined authority to facilitate the implementation of all these measures.

Future development of a decentralized small-scale fisheries management scheme

For the decentralization of authority to the local level, the government has to pay more attention to the functions and responsibilities to be decentralized in order to increase the effectiveness of decentralized small-scale fisheries management. But the process should be conducted with the clear understanding and full acceptance of the communities involved. The successful implementation of the community-based fisheries management project in the Phang-nga Bay provides a good example. This project paved the way for the local government level and the communities to be ready to cover functions and responsibilities given in the decentralization process. The new Thai Fisheries Act has been revised and is being amended. The content of this new act involves communities, the local government level and other stakeholders with an interest in the harvest, use and protection of aquatic resources in the decision-making process. The communities will receive rights to harvest aquatic resources within designated community fisheries areas and will be given the authority to implement measures related to aquatic resource management within these areas.

Conclusion and recommendation

Coastal states have to pay more attention to coastal fisheries management. In the past, national policies emphasized the development of fishing technologies. They must now move towards management of coastal resources for sustainable utilization. The policy whereby the central government keeps all authority and responsibilities will lose its effectiveness in the future. Decentralization will be an effective strategy for the management of coastal aquatic resources that could solve some problems in the fisheries sector. But the process of decentralization is complicated and delicate and has to be conducted step by step in suitable selected areas. Three main points have to be taken into consideration:

• Once all stakeholders, in particular the agencies concerned and the fishing communities, are ready to accept and participate in the process, the national policy and an appropriate legal framework to support the process have to be established.
• The capacity of the local institutions, financial provisions and human resources, which are the key issues to meet successful implementation, should be well prepared and sufficient.
• In particular enforcement of laws and regulations should be strengthened to control illegal fishing operations of fishermen from other unselected fishing communities.

Nguyen Long: Small-scale fisheries management in Viet Nam

Deputy Director, Research Institute of Marine Products
Haiphong, Viet Nam

Current status of small-scale fisheries management in Viet Nam

In the last two decades the number of fishing boats and the total engine power have increased continuously. During 1980-2000 the number of fishing boats increased from 28 021 to 75 928; the total engine power increased from 553 915 HP to 3 185 558 HP, a total increase of 5.75 times. Boats with engines of less than 90 HP made up 84 percent of all mechanized boats in 2000. This shows that fisheries in Viet Nam in general are small scale. The larger part of the marine catch comes from coastal fleets; most fishing activities take place in near-shore waters, resulting in high fishing pressure on the coastal zones. Viet Nam’s coastal areas are overfished; 82.1 percent of the total marine catch comes from waters with less than 50-m depth.

Quite a number of small fishing boats are active in coastal waters. Corresponding to the increased number of fishing boats and the volume of catch, the coastal resources are declining. In 1985, the average catch per horsepower was 1.11 ton/HP but in 2000 it was only 0.45 ton/HP, or 41 percent of the 1985 figure. With a lower percentage of commercial fish, a higher percentage of trash fish in the catch and the smaller size of fish caught, the income per fishing trip is decreasing.

Some 2 300 boats are added to the coastal fleets every year.

Coastal fishing pressure is increasingly threatening and possibly depleting the coastal aquatic resources. The economic efficiency of fishing activities in coastal waters is declining; the income per horsepower is dropping. To cover costs, fishing boats have to raise their fishing effort in many ways, such as increasing the hauling number of gear operations per fishing day, increasing the number of fishing days, reducing the mesh size, strengthening the light power to increase catches, and even fishing in forbidden areas or using harmful fishing gear or techniques. Such competition is threatening the coastal resources.

The number of people employed in the fisheries sector has increased in recent years. From 1990 to 2000, this number increased by 99.5 percent, from 270 587 to 540 000, with an average annual increase of 7.2 percent.

According to 1995 statistics, there were about 420 000 people involved in capture fisheries, 86 percent of them men and 14 percent women. Female workers are often involved in trading products at markets, in small-scale processing, making nets, repairing gear, etc. Of the total, 91 percent were working in private businesses, 8.6 percent in cooperatives and only 0.43 percent in state-owned enterprises. Of the total involved in capture fisheries, 73 percent were small-scale fishermen and 27 percent offshore fishermen.

The educational level in the fishing communities is low: 68 percent did not finish primary school, more than 20 percent did not finish secondary school, about 10 percent graduated from secondary schools and only 0.65 percent had certificates or diplomas from vocational schools or universities.

This very complicated socioeconomic situation in coastal fisheries will bear on any strategy for fisheries development in the future.

Experiences in implementing small-scale fisheries management schemes

Legal adjustment and legal instrument

The state has promulgated a legislative framework including laws and regulations for fisheries management in all fields: marine fishing, fisheries environment and resources. The main features are:

• A government decree on the management of fishing activities of people and means from foreign countries inside Vietnamese waters.
• A directive of the prime minister banning the use of explosives, electricity and poisons in fishing.
• A state law protecting and developing aquatic resources issued by the State Committee in 1989 and revised in 1996.
• A 1989 law of the State Committee and a 1990 decree of the Council of Ministers on the protection and development of aquatic resources.
• A decision of the minister of Fisheries on the passing of a regulation for the exploitation and management of marine resources in key fishing grounds in 1993.
• A decision of the minister of Fisheries on the passing of a regulation organizing and protecting aquatic resources.
• The Fisheries laws being made by the Ministry of Fisheries.
• The structure of the fisheries management system and fisheries institutions at national, provincial, district and commune levels.

The fisheries management system is structured as follows: Ministry of Fisheries; provincial fisheries departments; district fisheries divisions (or agriculture and rural development divisions); commune fisheries divisions.

The function of controlling and checking all fishing activities is assigned to the Fisheries Conservation Department of the Ministry of Fisheries and its branches in the provinces. Every provincial fisheries conservation department has patrol boats and staff to control fishing activities within the provincial coastal waters. The legislative base of the controlling task is in accordance with the relevant legal stipulations, decrees and circular letters promulgated by the government.

The controlling activities are concentrated on stopping illegal fishing activities such as fishing with explosives, electricity or poison and on limiting the use of harmful fishing gear and the use of strong lights for fishing. However, the provincial fisheries conservation departments are not able to enforce effectively community management, so the effects of the controlling-checking task are limited.

Constraints in implementing small-scale fisheries management schemes

Although the government has put forward many supportive policies and huge investments for fisheries development programmes, there are still problems to be solved:

• Uncontrolled number of fishing boats: As mentioned above, the total catch from marine waters less than 50 m deep in 1998 was 928 272 tons, exceeding the total allowable catch 1.59 times. The number of small fishing boats active in coastal waters keeps increasing, causing higher pressure on the resources. On average, 22 500 people enter marine fisheries every year. These people are poor, unable to invest in big fishing boats for offshore fishing and do not see alternative ways of earning a living. The Ministry of Fisheries has oriented its strategy towards the reduction of the number of fishing boats, which should limit the building of small boats. However, this is a complicated socioeconomic matter and there have been no solutions for it until now.
• It is necessary to have effective management measures to limit the use of harmful fishing gear and fishing techniques. The violation of the resource conservation regulations of the Ministry of Fisheries by using harmful fishing gear and fishing techniques is very common in many sea areas. To solve this problem, it is necessary not only to reinforce controlling and checking measures but also to apply management measures taking into account the socioeconomic aspects. It is necessary to develop a community management regime, as enforcement of conservation regulations and responsible fishing can only be done well if the fishermen understand and benefit from them.
• Mismanagement of the allowable quantity of catches in coastal waters and forbidden areas: There is a lack of efficient statistics for fisheries. Statistical data on the number of fishing boats by horsepower group and by fishing gear, catches by fishing gear and by key species have not been reliable and adequate enough for fisheries management. Besides, the number of fishing boats grows continuously and the percentage of small fishing boats is very high. Those fishing boats often move freely from one place to another causing an underestimation of the catch. The establishment of temporary closed areas has not been enforced.
• The division of fishing areas by distance to the shore, as applied to fishing boats by horsepower group and to different fishing gear, is still a concern. Big fishing boats of 200-300 HP or even 450 HP still commonly fish in waters of 15/25-m depth, affecting the coastal resources. In fact, there have been no laws to limit this fishing. In some countries boat categories for each fishing area are clearly defined. Viet Nam should also have clear policies and regulations to establish fishing areas for every category of fishing boat so that the above situation can be contained.
• Environment pollution: Oil sludge and waste of fishing boats being let out into the sea are a common problem in many fishing villages in Viet Nam. Many fishing villages do not have a sanitary system, all the wastes are let out to the beach often where fish are landed, affecting to the quality of the food.

Lessons learned

From results obtained and existing difficulties after implementing the policy of small-scale management, the following lessons were learned:

• There is a need to control the number of fishing boats in every sea region to match the actual condition of resources and actual status of the fishing fleets in each sea region. Coastal waters are currently overexploited; the number of fishing boats active in those areas should be reduced and the number of fishing boats active further offshore should be increased. The question of how many small fishing boats should be taken out of fisheries and how many big boats should be built still lacks answers based on scientific evidence. To develop fisheries in a sustainable way, it is necessary to study and define the right number of fishing boats by legal fishing gear in every sea region based on scientific evidence for the actual resources condition, the actual fishing fleets in every place and taking into account the economic efficiency of these fishing fleets. To do this will avoid overinvestment and overexploitation and assure the sustainable development of the fisheries sector.
• The development of offshore fisheries should go together with the cutting down of fishing pressure in coastal waters. In recent years, the government has provided support for fishermen in coastal provinces to increase offshore fisheries. However, the number of small fishing boats active near shore is still increasing. Although government units at different levels and in different sectors are aware of this matter, no policies, programmes or actions have been taken to solve this. To develop offshore fishing and to limit the exploitation in coastal waters are closely related. It is impossible to develop offshore fishing if coastal resources are being overexploited, so there must be solutions for both problems at the same time.
• The policy for management of small-scale fisheries must always link closely with resolving the socioeconomic problems of fishing communities.

Solutions to overcome constraints in small-scale fisheries management

• To adjust the structure of the fishing gear system and fishing capacity in every sea region: Scientific research is needed urgently on the actual resources, the current fishing capacity and the socioeconomic situation to define the structure of a proper gear system in every sea region. To define the structure of a proper gear system is to define the number of fishing boats, by horsepower group, by legal gear and by sea region to develop fisheries in a sustainable way. It is also necessary to have negotiations between coastal provinces of the same region to allocate the allowable number of fishing boats in each province, to standardize fisheries management and to avoid competition in fishing.
• To decide concrete policies and measures to reduce the number of fishing boats active near shore: Though they are aware that the number of small fishing boats has to be reduced, it is still very hard for fisheries managers to do so, as this bears on the lives of millions of people in fishing communities. The government is financially unable to purchase fishing boats from fishermen to reduce the number of fishing boats like other countries have done. A possible solution is for the government on the one hand to set up a coastal fishing pressure decreasing programme forbidding the construction of small-size fishing boats and unplanned recruitment of fishing boats into coastal fisheries, and on the other hand to create good conditions for alternative livelihood programmes in areas such as aquaculture, processing or tourism.
• To apply the guidelines on responsible fishing published by FAO and the regional guidelines for responsible fisheries in Southeast Asia in accordance with actual fisheries reality in Viet Nam, i.e.
  • to apply resources conservation measures, use artificial reefs, establish conservation areas and establish fish sanctuaries;
  • to ban harmful fishing gear and fishing techniques;
  • to indoctrinate and guide fishermen to consciously execute resource conservation regulations through the community management model; and
  • to take concrete measures for marine environment management and protection.

• To implement a community management model and assign coastal waters to coastal fishing communities for management. Such a model is a very new issue in Viet Nam. It is necessary to learn about its operating mechanisms, design a Vietnamese model, and apply it in a pilot area to draw experience from it. The matter of assigning the right to use coastal water areas for the management of coastal fishing communities needs to be considered right away. This is a complex matter but it is necessary to address it to ensure that the coastal waters (the scope of how many miles away from shore is to be considered later) will be better managed and protected and to avoid irrational competition in fishing.
• To set up a statistical system throughout the country: To have a base for research, planning, management and direction for fisheries resource conservation tasks as well as economy development plans for the fisheries sector, it is necessary to set up a statistical system for the whole country. Up to now, fisheries statistics in Viet Nam are very poor, current data are neither comprehensive nor reliable enough to meet the requirements.
• The division of fishing areas according to the distance to the shore for fishing boats by horsepower group and fishing gear.

Future development of decentralized small-scale fisheries management schemes including proposed solutions to noted constraints

• Community management matter: The operating mechanisms of community management models are based on the concept of fishermen participating in fisheries associations in fishing villages. The task of those associations is to encourage the assistance among fishermen themselves in fishing or in case of accidents at sea, to help fishermen to consume their landings and to build a link between fishermen and fisheries authorities. To set up a community management system also means to set up a bridge between state fisheries management units and fishermen in support of the fisheries management task.
• The assignment of the right to utilize water areas: One measure that can possibly solve the matter of hard competition in fishing which would also help in conserving resources is to assign the right to use coastal water areas to local fishing communities for management purposes. To implement this measure, careful study of the management mechanisms in assigned water areas is needed. The scope of each area (how many miles away from shore is enough) and other socioeconomic matters have to be included in such study.

Estimated funding requirements for future initiatives

It is necessary to fund the following future programmes for fisheries management:

• To carry out the project on sustainable fisheries management: In order to implement such a project, a survey of all socioeconomic problems in coastal areas needs to be done. In addition, the status of small-scale and commercial fisheries as well as the relationship between the size of fish stocks and the fishing capacity in coastal areas needs to be assessed. The results of such a project will show which policy and actions are needed for sustainable fisheries management in the country. Estimated funding for the project countrywide is about US$3 million.
• The programme of capital loans for offshore fishing fleet investment in Viet Nam: To solve the urgent needs in fisheries regarding the overexploitation of coastal waters and the decline of coastal resources, it is necessary to develop offshore fisheries with big fishing boats. Taking into account the limited financial abilities of fishermen, the government has launched a programme of capital loans for the development of an offshore fishing fleet in combination with special privileges. Since 1997 the government has provided loans of VND2 500 billion (equal to US$166.6 million) to fishermen.
• The aquaculture development programme: The objective of this programme is to develop aquaculture to assure food security and export earnings. This strives for a total aquaculture production of more than 2 million tons with an export value of more than US$2 500 million in the year 2010 and job and income creation for about 2 million people.
• The fisheries product export programme: The objective of this programme is to push for industrialization and modernization of the fisheries sector, to increase the fisheries export turnover, fisheries product processing and export together with aquaculture, storage and consumption and to develop markets for Viet Nam’s fisheries products.

References

Chung, Bui Dinh et al., 1999: Summary results of stock abundance and marine fishing capacity in Viet Nam. Research Institute of Marine Products (RIMP), Haiphong, Viet Nam

FAO, 1995: Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Rome, FAO, 1995:41p

Long Nguyen, 1997: Report of the project “Evaluation of the current fisheries status and fishing technology in offshore fisheries”. RIMP. Haiphong, Viet Nam

Long Nguyen, 1998: Report of the subproject “Scientific base on the fishing in order to utilize reasonably marine resources”. RIMP. Haiphong, Viet Nam

Ministry of Fisheries. Annual fisheries statistics of the Ministry of Fisheries. MOFI. Hanoi

Ministry of Fisheries, 2000: Report on offshore fishing status in 2000. MOFI. Hanoi

Ministry of Fisheries, 1990-2000: Reports of provincial fisheries departments. MOFI. Hanoi

SEAFDEC, 1999: Regional guidelines for responsible fisheries in Southeast Asia - responsible fishing operations. SEAFDEC. Bangkok

Vinh Chu Tien, 1998: Survey report on coastal resources in the Tonkin Gulf. RIMP. Hanoi

Vinh Chu Tien, 1999: Report on exploring marine resources to support offshore fisheries development. RIMP. Hanoi