7. REFERENCES

Achieng, A.P., 1990. Processing and marketing of Nile perch Lates niloticus and the pelagic species Rastrineobola argentea (‘dagaa’). In Report of the Symposium on Socio-economic aspects of Lake Victoria Fisheries. A Symposium organised by the IFIP Project under the framework of the CIFA Sub-committee for Lake Victoria, 25–27 April 1990, Kisumu, Kenya. FAR/87/099-TD/10/90 May 1990, 24p. Regional Project for Inland Fisheries Planning, Development and Management in Eastern/Central/Southern Africa (IFIP), Bujumbura, Burundi

Balarin, J.D., 1985. National reviews for aquaculture planning and development in Africa. 7.Kenya. FAO Fish Circ., (770.7):96p.

Boonyaratpalin, M. and M.B. New, 1982. Evaluation of diets for Macrobrachium rosenbergii reared in concrete tanks. In Giant prawn farming, edited by M.B. New. Amsterdam, Elsevier, pp.249–256

Bowen, S.H., 1982. Feeding, digestion and growth-qualitative considerations. pp. 141–156. In R.S.V. Pullin and R.H. Lowe-McConnell (Editors). The biology and culture of tilapias. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 7, 432p. International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila

Campbell, D., 1985. Large scale farming of Sarotherodon niloticus. Aquaculture, 48:57–69

Dickson, M.W., 1987. The supply of vitamins in feed for intensive tilapia farming in Zambia. Aquac.Fish.Management., 18:221–230

Edwards, P., 1982. Lecture notes on utilisation of animal and plant wastes. Report of consultancy at the Regional Lead Centre in China for Integrated Fish Farming. Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia (NACA), FAO Field Document no. NACA/WP/82/6, Bangkok, October 1982, 104p.

Gaiger, I.G. and J.B. Krause, 1983. Growth rates of Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and silver carp (Hypoplthalmichthys molitrix) without artificial feeding in floating cages in plankton-rich water. Aquaculture, 31:361–367

Gumprich, W.D., S.K. Khajarern and L.J. Marenah, 1989. Technical and economic study and mission report on cassava production and utilization in livestock feeding. FAO Field Document, Project TCP/KEN/8954, Nairobi, Kenya

Hepher, B., 1979. Supplementary diets and related problems in fish culture, pp. 343–347. In J.E. Halver and K. Tiews (Editors), Finfish Nutrition and Fishfeed Technology, Vol.1, Heenemann GmbH, Berlin

Jauncey, K. and B. Ross, 1982. A guide to Tilapia feeds and feeding. Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Scotland, 111p.

JICA, 1987. The study of integrated regional development master plan for the Lake Basin Development area. Final Report Volume 3, Sector Report 1 Agriculture/Livestock/Fishery, October 1987

JICA, 1987. The study of integrated regional development master plan for the Lake Basin Development area. Final Report Volume 1, Executive Summary, October 1987, 27p.

Lake Basin Development Authority (LBDA), 1990. Five year development plan 1989–1993, Lake Basin Development Authority, Kenya, 66p.

Lee, C.S. and R.A. Shleser, 1984. Production of Penaeus vannamei in cattle manure-enriched ecosystems in Hawaii. J. World Maricult. Soc., 15:52–60

New, M.B., 1987. Feed and feeding of fish and shrimp. FAO Field Document No. ADCP/REP/87/26:275p. Rome, Italy

New, M.B., 1988. Demonstration of the manufacture and use of simple compound feeds for semi-intensive-intensive tilapia culture in Zambia. FAO Field Document, A report prepared for the Fish Cuture Development Project GCP/ZAM/038/NET, February 1988, Rome, Italy, 26p.

Schroeder, G., 1980. Fish farming in manure-loaded ponds. In Integrated agriculture aquaculture farming systems, pp. 73–86. Pullin, R.S.V. and Z.H. Shehadeh (Editors), ICLARM Conference Proceedings 4, 258p, Manila, Philippines

Tacon, A.G.J., 1987. The nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp - A training manual 1. The essential nutrients. FAO Field Document, Project GCP/RLA/075/ITA; Field Document No.2/E, Brasilia, Brazil, 117p.

Tacon, A.G.J., 1987. The nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp - A training manual 2. Nutrient sources and composition. FAO Field Document, Project GCP/RLA/075/ITA; Field Document No.5/E, Brasilia, Brazil, 129p.

Tacon, A.G.J., 1988. The nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp - A training manual 3. Feeding methods. FAO Field Document, Project GCP/RLA/075/ITA, Field Document No.7/E, Brasilia, Brazil, 208p.

Tacon, A.G.J., G. Maciocci and J.E. Vinatea, 1987. National agricultural feed surveys (NAFS) for aquaculture planning and development in Latin America and the Caribbean 1. Guidelines. FAO Field Document, Project GCP/RLA/075/ITA, Field Document No.1/E, Brasilia, Brazil, 11p.

Wannigama, N.D., D.E.M. Weerakoon and G. Muthukumarana, 1985. Cage culture of Sarotherodon niloticus in Sri Lanka: Effect of stocking density and dietary crude protein levels on growth, pp.113–117. In Finfish nutrition in Asia: methodological approaches to research and development. Ottawa, Ontario, IDRC-233e, edited by C.Y.Cho, C.B.Cowey and T.Watanabe.

Table 1. Record of total fish pond harvests within the Lake Basin Region in 1988 and 1989¹

¹ Source: George O. Joshua, Computer Operator, LBDA (unpublished data)
² Production: Harvest/Area × 365/Period × 10,000
³ Source: David Onyango, Ass. Aquaculturist, LBDA (unpublished data)

Table 2. LBDA Regions share of agricultural production in Kenya during 1985¹

¹ Compiled from LBDA (1990) and JICA (1987)

² Gumprich, Khajarern & Marenah (1989) give total production ('000 tonnes) in Kenya for 1988 as Maize 3258, Cassava 790, Sunflower seed cake 9, Sorghum 114, Millet 51, Rice 45 and Cottonseed cake 3

⁴ According to the Kenya Marine Fisheries & Research Institute (KMFRI, Kisumu) the estimated catch of freshwater fish from the Kenyan part of Lake Victoria for 1990 was 190,125 tonnes, including Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) 107,801 tonnes (56.7% of total catch), Omena (R. argentea) 57,290 tonnes (39.6% of total catch), Tilapia species 4,095 tonnes (2.2% of total catch), and Others 2,939 tonnes (1.5% of total fish catch; Mr. C.Rabuor, KMFRI, Personal Communication). The 1990 wholesale market price of the above fish species in Kisumu was fresh Nile Perch Ksh 10.6–21.6/kg (mean 15.4), sun-dried Omena Ksh 7.7–23.8/kg (mean 14.0) and Tilapia sp. Ksh 18.1–31.5/kg (mean 23.0; Mr. E.O.Yongo, Marketing Economist, KMFRI, Personal Communication).

Table 3. Proximate composition and cost of the major feed ingredients available in Kenya (all values are expressed as % by weight on a as-fed basis: Crude Protein - CP, Lipid - EE, Crude Fibre - CF)¹

¹ Excludes the food grains (maize, wheat and sorghum) for human consumption
² Reported composition and cost (Ksh/kg CAF Nakuru) provided by Unga Feeds Ltd on 13/3/91 unless otherwise stated
³ Exchange Rate 19 March 1991 Ksh 26.14 = 1 US $
⁴ Cost Ksh/kg CAF Nairobi, Sigma Feeds Ltd
⁵ Average composition from Tacon (1987)
⁶ Cost Ksh/kg CAF Kisumu, Kibos Industries Ltd; composition given as 36.5% CP, 6.5% EE and 15% CF for cottonseed oilcake, and 30–35% CP, 6% EE and 10% CF for sunflowerseed oilcake. Production 500 tonnes/year for each oilcake.
⁷ Composition and cost Ksh/kg CAF Kisumu, Kibos Industries Ltd; production 100 tonnes/month
⁸ Cost Ksh/kg CAF Kisumu, Kenya Breweries Ltd; production 15 tonnes/month. Kenya Breweries Ltd in Kisumu also produce 450 tonnes/month of wet brewers grains (barley) and is sold to cattle farmers for Ksh 250/tonne
⁹ Composition and cost Ksh/kg CAF Muhoroni, Agro-Chemical & Foods C.Ltd; production 36 tonnes/month
¹⁰ Sun-dried and ground Omena (R. argentea). According to KMFRI the total catch of Omena in 1990 within Lake Victoria (Kenyan part) was estimated to be 75,290 tonnes. Furthermore, according to Achieng (1990) approximately 50% of the Omena landings are converted into fishmeal using simple ‘Posho’ milling machines and used for livestock feeding.
¹¹ Composition and cost Ksh/kg CAF Nairobi, Tamfeeds Ltd. Fishmeal is derived from the cooking of 100% Nile Perch (L. niloticus) filleting waste and is sterile and fat stabilized with BHT; average production 60–120 tonnes/month of fishmeal and 10–15 tonnes/month of fish bone meal. Tamfeed's fishmeal plant has the capacity to handle up to 30 tonnes of Nile Perch filleting waste/day or one quarter of the national production of filleting waste in Kenya. The supply of filleting waste is dependent upon the catches from Lake Victoria (best season April - August); according to KMFRI the total catch of Nile Perch was 107,801 tonnes in 1990. The cost of filleting waste CAF Tamfeeds is Ksh 0.65–0.95/kg (filleting waste generally constitutes 60% of the whole fish).
¹² Cost Ksh/kg CAF Kisumu, Kibos Industries Ltd.

Table 4. Proximate composition and cost of the major animal feeds and fertilizers available in Kenya

¹ Reported composition and cost (Ksh/kg CAF Nakuru) provided by Unga Feeds Ltd, unless otherwise stated. Transportation costs of finished feeds from Nakuru to Kisumu estimated to be approximately Ksh 36/ 70kg bag.
² Kenya Grain Growers Cooperative Union (KGGCU), Kisumu Branch, price list for Unga Feeds in stock
³ KGGCU, Kisumu Branch, price list for United Millers (Kisumu) feeds in stock
⁴ KGGCU, Kisumu Branch, price list for Muus Ltd (Thika) feeds in stock
⁵ Sigma Feeds Ltd, Nairobi
⁶ KGGCU, Kisumu Branch, price list for 50 kg bags
⁷ Tamfeeds Ltd, Nairobi, price list ex-factory; assembles premixes from imported individual vitamins/minerals to suit purchaser's requirements or formulation.

Table 5. List of the major animal feed manufacturers and suppliers in Kenya ¹

¹ Inclusive of small part-time mills, the present milling capacity within Kenya for the manufacture of animal feeds is estimated to be 1400 tonnes per day (Mr. E.L.Karstad, Personal Communication)

Table 6. Recommended dietary formulations for Tilapia (O. niloticus) for use at moderate-high fish stocking densities

¹ Recommended formulations for the commercial manufacture of Tilapia feeds in Kenya
² Ingredient name followed by reported crude protein and lipid content. All ingredients should first be ground so as to pass through a 1mm mesh sieve
³ These diets are intended for use at moderate-high stocking densities (above/or = 5/m²) within earthen ponds or floating cages. Fry (0–1g fish) feeds should be prepared as 0.5–1.0mm crumbles, and fingerling (1–30g fish) and grow-out (above 30g fish) feeds as 1–2mm crumbles and 3mm pellets, respectively. Granules or crumbles should be prepared by crushing or crumbling 3mm pellets between rollers and then screening out the desired particle size. After sieving the finished feed should contain not more than 10% oversized or undersized granules.
⁴ These fry diets are intended for use within concrete tanks supplied with clear running water for the production of all-male fry in conjunction supplemented dietary hormones.
⁵ Only fishmeal stabilized with an antioxidant (BHT) should be used
⁶ Decorticated expeller meal should be used
⁷ Although dietary vitamin fortification has been found to be unnecessary under intensive commercial production conditions within Africa (Campbell, 1985; Dickson, 1987), it may be necessary under conditions where no natural food organisms are present within the rearing water. An adequate vitamin premix should provide the following supplemented vitamins/kg dry fry diet; vitamin A 3000 IU, vitamin D³ 1500 IU, vitamin E 120mg, vitamin K 6mg, thiamine 18mg, riboflavin 24mg, pyridoxine 18mg, pantothenic acid 72mg, nicotinic acid 108mg, biotin 0.2mg, folic acid 3mg, vitamin B12 0.015mg, silicon coated vitamin C 450mg, choline chloride 1200mg and inositol 150mg (Tacon, 1987). It is imperative that the diet not be sun-dried if a vitamin premix is to be included within the diet; riboflavin, pyridoxine, folic acid, vitamin B12, vitamin C, vitamin A and vitamin E being particularly liable to UV oxidation and destruction on exposure to direct sunlight.
⁸ Calculated composition based on feed analysis reports of ingredients used in Kenya (Table 3)
⁹ 19 March 1991; Ksh 26.14 = 1 US $
¹⁰ Raw ingredient costs CAF Unga Feeds Ltd, Nakuru (Table 3)
¹¹ Raw ingredient costs X 130%; includes material handling costs, fixed processing and administration costs, and equipment wear and tear.

Table 7. Observed dietary inclusion levels (%) of some common feed ingredients within dry practical pelleted diets for omnivorous fish species¹

¹ Adapted from Tacon (1988)
² Blood meal is a rich source of leucine, valine and histidine, but is very deficient in isoleucine and methionine; because of the antagonistic effect of excess leucine on isoleucine, animals fed high dietary levels of blood meal may suffer from an isoleucine deficiency.
³ Degossypolized meal should be used
⁴ Hydrolyzed feather meal protein is a rich source of cystine but is deficient in methionine, lysine and histidine; because of the antagonistic effect of excess cystine on methionine, animals fed high levels of feather meal may suffer from an methionine deficiency.
⁵ The decorticated meal should be used and should give negative results for aflatoxin
⁶ May vary in composition and quality, and hence should only be used at low to moderate dietary inclusion levels
⁷ Varieties containing low levels of glucosinolates and erucic acid should be used
⁸ Low tanin variety should be used