New regions were introduced in 1991, but we have used the old name for Owambo in the text, as most of our sources refer to the old regions. The former Owambo region corresponds to the following four new regions: Mopani, Oshana, Marula and parts of Oshikoto. The former Kavango region is now Okavango and includes less of the Caprivi strip than it used to (see Fig 1).
Namibia is mainly arid or semiarid. Rainfall varies from virtually zero in the hyperarid Namib desert to 600 mm per annum in the northern regions. Rainfall increases from south to north and from the coast and eastward. Rainfall in the Owambo-Okavango-Caprivi-area varies from 400–500 mm in south west of Owambo to more than 650 mm in eastern Caprivi. The north of Okavango has 500–600 mm rainfall, and for all three regions almost the total rainfall occurs during the summer months between October and March. The variability of rainfall is greater in the western parts (FAO 1992a).
Figure 1a. Map of Namibia -- New Regional Areas, 1991.
1. Kunene.
2. Mopani
3. Oshana.
4. Marula
5. Oshikato
6. Okavango
8. Waterberg.
9. Omaheka
10. Erongo.
11. Khomas
12. Hardap
13. Karas
Division of regions as proposed by the Delimitation Commission, and approved by the Namibian Cabinet in October 1991. Source: The Economic Intelligence Unit 1992/ Namibia through the 1990s -- Special Report No. M211. London.
Figure 1b. Regions of northern Nambia (before reorganization)
At left is a map of Namibia as reorganized in October 1991. Above is an old map of Namibia, with old names for various regions. The old names are used in this report, as most of the mission's information sources refer to the old names.
Namibia comprises five agro-ecological zones:
Soils in the northern areas are mainly sands or sandy loams with a fine texture, weak cohesion, low in fertility and with a low water holding capacity. The coarse Kalahari sand dominant are not recommended for agriculture, whereas the deeper and finer sandy soils enable rainfed cropping. In the riverine areas and along depressions soils contain more clay and have a more reliable yield potential. Soils in eastern Caprivi are dominantly alluvial sands and loams with higher organic matter and consequently, higher fertility (FAO 1992a).
Temperature: The hottest months are October to November when the average daily maximum temperature is around 35°C.
44% of the total land area is used by the commercial farming sector and 41% is designated as communal land areas. In the commercial farming area 33% is suitable for sheep, 51% for cattle and 16% is used for mixed farming. There is a transition from sheep farming in the dry south to cattle farming in the moister northern areas. Dairy farming is found mostly near major towns and in the former Gobabis district.
The land/population ratio is estimated to be 2.9 ha/inhabitant in the Owambo-Okavango-Caprivi region. In the other communal regions the figure is 47 ha /inhabitant, and in the commercial farming districts 400 ha / inhabitant (Jansson 1991).
The only perennial rivers -- the Kunene, Kavango, Zambezi and Kwando-Linyati in the north and Orange in the south -- are on the borders. In addition there are several small rivers on the west coast that carry water only for short periods of time after the rains.
The Cuvelai system or the Oshanas, is a seasonal wetland created by floods in the Cuvelai River system in Angola. A network of low-lying, interconnecting short-lived watercourses recharges groundwater, hand-dug wells and open dams, renews grazing, brings fish and provides water.
The occurrence and disribution of fish species is well documented (Fig 2 distribution). There are 82 known species in the Okavango, 81 species in the Caprivi system, and 14 species in the Orange River. Stocking and transport of live fish among farm dams pose a threat to the natural biodiversity in the different water systems, despite strict regulations.
Development of aquaculture or fisheries in SWB for commercial production can only be justified only if it economically viable: yields an equally high or higher return to labour, capital and inputs than alternative uses of the same resources.
Development of aquaculture or fisheries in SWB for subsistence can under certain conditions contribute to other important social goals such as food self sufficiency and improved nutrition. It can then be justified to subsidize the production e.g. provision of subsidized inputs or free extension service.
Aquaculture may be an activity worthwhile to explore provided the following conditions can be met:
Other possible reasons for fish farming include unavailability of other protein rich food, risk reduction through diversification and more even supply of relish over the year.
Fish Consumption
The Ministry of Fisheries estimates national consumption of marine fish to be 4 kg/capita per year (Mr J. Oelofsen, pers. med.), which gives a total consumption of 6000 tons per year. Consumption of freshwater fish is not known, as no regular collection of catch data has taken place.
The company TNP Fishing reports that it sells 1.200 tons of marine fish in the northern areas, which is 1,6 kg/person. According to TNP, shops with freezers are widespread in the area, and through the shops and the use of private cars, frozen seafish is available everywhere. Dried and canned fish has been test marketed in the area, but frozen fish is preferred by consumers. TNP claims that no other company sells considerable quantities of fish in the northern areas.
The sale of fish is seasonal, with a peak in October (30–40 tons a week), and virtually no fish sold in Nov-Feb. The main species is horse mackerel, but hake is also sold. Mackerel is sold to shops for R 1–1.15/kg, and retail price is R 1.45–1.60/kg.
Markets and shops in the Oshakati area had frozen seafish which was sold for 5R / 2 kg. Dried catfish was sold by men and women from Caprivi, who fish and dry it during the floods (May to June), and go to Owambo to sell. They only sell catfish because that is less popular in Caprivi, and the preferred species in Owambo. The price seemed to be approximately R8 (One US $= approximately 3.4 Rand) for the amount of dried fish equivalent to one kilo of fresh catfish.
No fresh inland fish was found in the shops or markets. Fresh meat was sold at about R 10 /kg.
In summary, frozen seafish is cheap, and it is available in shops equipped with a freezer, and probably also elsewhere. Fresh meat is believed to be available everywhere, but at a considerably higher price. There is reason to believe that some species of freshwater fish (catfish in Owambo, bream in Okavango and Caprivi) can fetch a higher price than seafish, but how much higher is difficult to say. This may also be subject to change, as consumers get more used to eating marine fish. Since meat in general is preferred to fish the price of freshwater fish will in any case have to be lower than the price of meat.
Food self sufficiency and nutritional status
Food self sufficiency for the communal areas is about 60% (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting 1991). Food insecurity is believed to be more prevalent in Owambo than in Okavango and Caprivi (FAO 1992a).
UNICEF reports high levels of malnutrition in Owambo in comparison to those found in much of southern Africa. Incidence of stunting (children more than 2 standard deviations below the median height for age of reference population) among children under five years is 32–34% in Owambo, 45% in Okavango and 52% in Caprivi. It is assumed that in addition to chronic poverty and low incomes, seasonal food insecurity a contributes significantly to short-term child malnutrition in Owambo. Relatively better agronomic conditions in the Okavango and Caprivi co-exist with rates of wasting and stunting that are both relatively and absolutely high.
No information is available about the nutritional status of children among 200 000 – 250 000 commercial farm workers and dependents.
Malnutrition among children is also found in townships in the central and southern parts of the country, but less than in the northern ares.
The cause for malnutrition -- whether there is a protein deficit in the diet, and whether fish farming has any potential to alleviate it -- is not known. Other complicating factors are that households with malnourished children tend to be the poorer households and female-headed households -- which also often have less of a labour surplus and fewer resources to start fish farming.
Labour market and income
The unemployment rate at the national level is estimated to be more than 30 % (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting 1991). Unemployment rates over 50% are reported in townships throughout the southern and central regions. This isbelieved to be getting worse as formal sector employment possibilities in the northern areas appear to be declining, and as the population growth is 3% per annum. On the other hand shortage of household labour for land clearing and weeding is said to be an important - factor limiting the agricultural production in northern areas (FAO 1992b). This indicates that there may not be any surplus labour in the season for land clearing and weeding (October to February). Labour demands in aquaculture will at least partly overlap with this period. With current population growth, population is expected to rise beyond the carrying capacity of the land in many ares, so seasonal lack of surplus labour may be a short-term limitation.
Real gross national product per capita is R 2130, but real income per capita in rural areas i s estimated at R300 per annum (Ministry of Information and Broadcasting 1991), and the main contributions to this are pensions in Okavango, and remittances in Owambo (FAO 1992a).
Overall, it is not clear whether aquaculture can be a viable employment opportunity and also whether it can contribute to increased food self sufficiency and improved nutrition. More information is needed on potential markets for farmed fish, and on the causes for nutritional problems.
Aquaculture must be considered in the context of crop and livestock production.
Present agriculture system
Today's system in the northern regions is characterized as a agrosilvipastoral land use system (crops, trees and livestock in combination). Crops are mainly millet, and some sorghum, beans, pumpkin and melons. Livestock is goats, sheep and cattle. The present land use system cannot support as dense a population as it does in the oshana area without the additional sources of income (remittances, pensions, sale of baskets and beer)(GRN 1992). Most land with potential for agriculture production in oshanas are currently being used, but a potential for hand watering or drip irrigation in small garden for intensive vegetable gardening exist.
Manure collected in livestock kraals is important to maintain soil fertility, but leaves from trees, growing of legumes between crops and fallow periods are used. Use of chemical fertilizer is limited. Livestock are allowed to browse the fields after harvest. Manure is increasingly being used as “firewood”.
Caprivi and Okavango have fertile alluvial soils and some dry land maize production in addition to the same crops as Owambo. Many farmers do not use the manure on the fields, and serious soil degradation and low yields are frequent. There is potential for irrigation near the rivers. Areas away from the river are underutilized due to lack of water.
Land in the communal areas is owned by the community and the chief allocates households heritable rights to cultivate land and permit to graze livestock on unallocated community land (FAO 1992a). This system is valuable from a equity point of view, but can have disadvantages for development of private enterprizes like aquaculture.
Potential for combination with aquaculture
In the northern areas, the level of intensity of use of resources is low, although potential for intensification exists. Water for irrigation can often be used for aquaculture with little extra cost, but at present very little irrigation exists. Potential aquaculture feeds (manure, crop residue) are few and urgently needed for their present uses. In areas with increased intensification and irrigation the potential for aquaculture will be higher.
Resettlement schemes in the commercial areas and changes in land ownership patterns in Owambo will have implications for the potential.
An agriculture extension service exists and is functioning, but reportedly reaches only a small proportion of the farmers (Yaron et al. 1992). The extension service is fragmented, with separate services for agriculture and health and a third one for rural development, where aquaculture is included. For farmers, it will usually be better to have one extension officer, who is provided with training and technical backstopping by specialists. The government plans to merge the extension services for rural development and agriculture.
Estimates for maximum sustainable yield of fish exist for Owambo (250 tons) and Caprivi (8–900 tons), but figures vary greatly for the Okavango. No reliable figures for production based on catch data exist. The fishing is highly seasonal in Owambo and partly seasonal in Caprivi with annual floods. The Okavango provides a more steady supply of fish over the year. The majority of the fishing seems to be done by women and children as a small-scale subsistence activity, with a limited surplus for processing and sale. During the flood, fish from Caprivi is dried and sold to Owambo, Botswana and Zambia. Most of the population live close to rivers, and a high percentage is believed to be involved in the fishing.
Exploitation level
For the Okavango River, monitoring data from the Freshwater Fish Institutes indicates that there is, at present, no overutilization, but the use of mosquito nets for fishing causes some concern. No information exists on the fishermen's own perception of the resource situation.
Proper baseline data on the fish stock and the exploitation level are lacking for the Caprivi system. With increasing population and declining formal sector employment opportunities, the fishing pressure in Okavango and Caprivi is expected to rise.
The Kunene river is currently little exploited because of low population and the fact that the Herero/Himbas who live in the area, do not eat fish. The Cuvelai system is a seasonal wetland and must be harvested completely every year, or the fish will die in the dry season. Fishing pressure is believed to be low in the Orange river.
As aquaculture will not normally be economically viable unless the natural fisheries is overexploited, more information on the exploitation level (regular monitoring) is important also to determine the potential for aquaculture.
Environmental degradation threatens the riverine fisheries through soil erosion contaminating the water and making it unsuitable for breeding for some species.
Government policy for the riverine fisheries emphasizes maintenance of maximum sustainable yield, and conservation, environment and species diversity. At present there is no legal framework to control the fishing in communal lands. This will change as soon as a new legislation is under preparation by the Ministry of Fisheries.
The Department of Fisheries has no extension service that can promote or control inland fisheries. Nature conservation officers have a role in enforcing regulations, but this is often difficult to combine with extension.
The government is also facing problems controlling private transfers of fish between the different watersheds.
There are no traditional aquaculture practices in Namibia. The resource base and the socio-economic setting place limits on the development of this sector:
Within these limitations, there are some localized opportunities for aquaculture using:
Several localized aquaculture activities have been undertaken since the mid-1980s. They have been reviewed by Wilton (1990) and Remedios & Regadera (1991) and are updated, together with information on new activities, below.
Stocking and harvesting of oshanas, Rural Development Centre (RDC), Directorate of Rural Development, MAWRD, Ongwediva, Owambo. The RDC is funded directly by MAWRD and operated on a contract basis since 1988 (prior to Namibian independence) by a private consulting company. All of its workers are employees of the consulting company and are not civil servants. RDC carries out a wide range of rural development activities in Owambo, including training of farmers and extension through a limited number of rural extension officers.
RDC has responsibility for aquaculture development and extension in Owambo; it has focussed on producing fingerlings and stocking oshanas. RDC has one trained aquaculture technician and two hatcheries comprising:
| • | Ongwediva: | 4 earthen ponds for holding C. gariepinus broodstock | ||
| 20 × 24m2 earthen ponds for C. gariepinus fingerlings | ||||
| 6 galvinized round tanks for C. gariepinus spawning. | ||||
| • | Mahanene: | 10 × 200m2 earthen ponds for tilapia breeding (O. andersonii, O. macrochir, T. rendalli). | ||
Since 1989, some 50 farmers have been supplied annually with fingerlings at a nominal price for stocking oshanas. Stocking rates are low and no fertilizers or feeds are applied. Since almost all oshanas dry up during the dry season, all the fish are harvested within 3–5 months after stocking.
Since most oshanas are community property, and people are used to fishing them to extinction at the end of the rainy season, it has not been possible to establish private control of the stocked fish. RDC is now directing its efforts towards community control and management of fish stocked in oshanas, especially those that are being enlarged and deepended (2500m2, 5m deep) for year-round cattle watering.
The Rossing Foundation. The foundation is a national NGO development assistance agency. It operates 12 regional training centres with courses and experimental activities covering a broad range of productive activities, including aquaculture. Two aquaculture trials have been undertaken:
O. mossambicus fingerlings were stocked in the saline waters of a reservoir (less than 1 ha) supplied by an artesian well at the Agricultural Training Centre, Okashana, on the southern edge of Owambo. Many fish died, but those that survived grew to over 500 g, although they reportedly had a sulphur taste. Some fish were also kept in cages. The foundation considers the experiment a success but the results have never been documented nor applied elsewhere. The training centre is now used only for occassional courses by other ogranizations. The reservoir still exists but there is no aquaculture or fishing activity.
An experimental integrated aquaculture-vegetable production unit was tried at the Horticulture Training Centre, Okahandjia, based on a design by an outside consultant, with a view to eventual use by farmers. The unit has not yielded good results and the Rossing Foundation now realizes that the technology is inappropriate for rural farmers in Namibia.
Cage culture. Two experiments on cage culture, with and without feeding, have been carried out in Hardap Dam (Shrader & Ferreira, 1991). One private individual, Mr. Delport, is now growing O. mossambicus in floating cages with feeding on Hardap Dam (see Appendix 3 for experiences).
Aquaculture in sewage ponds. In 1986, a private individual commissioned a feasibility study on the public health aspects of growing fish in the Windhoek muncipal sewage works. Although the study's outlook was positive, the investor did not go ahead. Wilton (1990) reported that fish farming was included in an ambitious project using Omaruru municipal sewage water for hydroponics and pig farming. FFI reported that this project did not take off.
Voigtsgrund resettlement farm. A consultant to Oxfam (Wilton 1990) reported on the potential for aquaculture and reservoir fisheries at this farm near Hardap. No progress has been made, and FFI reported that the farm dam (about 30 ha) dried up in 1992, when over a ton of C. gariepinus were harvested.
Oxfam Canada-Namibia Cooperation Programme (CANAMCO), Okavango. This community-based development programme started in 1992 and is planned for five years. During the first year activities were started in seven villages, including vegetable gardening in five riverside villages using water pumped from the Okavango River. Poultry farming is also being initiated. On a trial basis, fish have been stocked in 5m diameter irrigation cisterns, but Oxfam and the local communities need technical advice on how to manage their aquaculture system, including training for rural development promotors.
Table 1: Characteristics of some Namibian state dams
| Name | River | Surface area (km2) | Catchment area (km2) | Volume (106 m3) | No of fish spp | MSY (kg/ha) |
| Hardap | Fish | 29.6 | 13600 | 300.2 | 7 | 42 |
| Swakopport | Swakop | 7.8 | 8400 | 69.1 | 5 | - |
| Naute | Lowen | 11.6 | 8660 | 81.8 | 4 | 86 |
| Von Bach | Swakop | 4.9 | 2920 | 49.9 | 5 | 39 |
| Omatako | Omatoko | 11.1 | 5320 | 42.6 | 2 | 62 |
| Dreihuk | Hom | 2.7 | 2120 | 11.8 | -- | -- |
| Friedenau | Kuiseb | 0.8 | 210 | 6.7 | -- | -- |
| Goreangab | Gammams | 1.0 | 131 | 4.2 | -- | -- |
| Avis | Avis | 0.5 | 102 | 2.4 | -- | -- |
| Daan Viljoen | Black Nossob | 0.2 | 5300 | 0.3 | 2 | -- |
| Tilda Viljoen | Black Nossob | 0.2 | 5300 | 1.2 | 3 | -- |
| Bondels | Satco | 0.8 | -- | 1.1 | -- | -- |
| Merensky | Aub | 0.1 | -- | 0.1 | -- | -- |
| Oanob | -- | 2.7 | -- | 34.5 | -- | -- |
| Olushandja | Etaka Oshona | -- | -- | 42.3 | 39 | -- |
| Omatjenne | Ugab | -- | -- | 45.1 | -- | -- |
| Otjivero main | -- | 1.5 | -- | 9.8 | 3 | -- |
| Otjivero silt | -- | 3.2 | -- | 7.8 | 3 | -- |
Area and volume of the dams are at maximum water level.
Community Subsistence Fish Farming Project, Babalela Integrated Development Project, Caprivi. A church-based NGO has prepared an ambitious project proposal (Anon. 1991) for fish farming as part of its ongoing rural development activities. A member of the NGO currently based in Zimbabwe will move to Katima Mulilo in the second half of 1993 to revise and implement the proposal.
Namibian aquaculture experiences to date have essentially been private or community-based initiatives, with little Government support beyond the funding of RDC activities. Success has been limited and future initiatives should pay attention to four crucial elements in the Namibian context:
There are three types of reservoirs in Namibia: state dams, private farm dams, and oshanas.
2.6.1 State dams
There are 18 state dams in Namibia (see Table 2), with all but one in the central and southern parts of the country. Their maximum sizes vary from 12 to 10,000 ha with a total maximum area of 20,709 ha. Several of the dams dry up regularly during the dry season and most remain far below the maximum supply level throughout the year. Many of the dams in central Namibia are part of the Eastern National Water Carrier and act as storage reservoirs for a canal (not operational) running from the Okavango River to Windhoek. Others supply water to municipalities. Two dams, Hardap and Naute on the Fish River, supply large irrigation schemes.
The FFI occassionally stocks selected state dams using fingerlings produced at its Hardap hatchery (17 earthen ponds, circular cement outdoor tanks, and 60 small heated indoor tanks). O. mossambicus and C. gariepinus are currently bred. O. mossambicus is not stocked into any dams which drain to the north or east (Cunene, Cuvelai, Okavango systems). In the past, Micropterus salmoides and Cyprinus carpio were bred at FFI and stocked in some dams; they have reportedly established several breeding populations.
The FFI regularly samples selected dams using multi-filament gillnet fleets. With the exception of Olushandja dam in Owambo, connected to the Cunene and Cuvelai systems, very few species are caught (see Table 2), from 2–7 species per dam. Besides the stocked species mentioned above, Oreochromis macrochir, Tilapia rendalli, Tilapia sparmanii, Labeo capensis, and Labeo umbratus are also caught. Smaller species, especially Barbus spp., may be present but are not caught due to the lack of small-mesh sampling nets. Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is based on total yield divided by surface area at maximum water level.
Sampling data are stored in dBASE format on a microcomputer. Some limnological data are also collected. Data prior to 1988 were used to estimate maximum sustainable yields for several dams (see Table 2) (Shrader 1992). They have not since been analyzed or reported due to lack of manpower. Three Government agencies have management responsibilities for state dams:
The division of management responsibility among three agencies in three different ministries has impeded the development of fishing activities by FFI. Fishing is viewed as a low priority activity by the other agencies.
Although fish are clearly present, there is very little fishing, subsistence, recreational or commercial, on the dams. High entry fees and rigid enforcement of access rules by DNC keep subsistence fishers away. DNC keeps records of angling, but these are not systematic and are not used by FFI. There are only two instances of licensed commercial fishing awarded by tender, on Hardap (by FFI) and Omatako (by DOWA) dams, with mixed results (see Appendix 3).
Several of the dams are in isolated places, while others are relatively close to urban areas. The mission visited five dams and saw fishing, or evidence of fishing, only on Goreangob dam on the outskirts of Windhoek. This dam is heavily polluted, with domestic sewage and industrial waste, yet several fishermen were using hook & line and nets to catch common carp for sale and for their own consumption.
Overall, limited physical access for subsistence fishing, and uneconomic licensing of commercial fishing, can be identified as the main problems inhibiting the exploitation of the known fishery resource in state dams. As with aquaculture, an assessment of the local (and national) supply and demand for fish would improve solutions to these problems.
2.6.2 Farm dams
There is an unknown number (estimates as high as 10,000, Anon. 1990) of small dams on over 6000 private commercial farms in the central and southern areas of Namibia, used mainly for cattle and wildlife watering. Many of these dams dry up during the dry season. FFI has stocked dams with C. gariepinus, O. mossambicus, O. macrochir, T. rendalli, and T. sparmanni at subsidized prices. A stocking database is maintained. No management or harvesting information is provided to dam owners.
In 1989, a one-page questionnaire on farmer identification, farm dam area, average depth, species present and fishing activities was sent to 4000 commercial farmers. The 300 responses have been used to map the occurence of fish species in dams. The data have not been put on a database.
Fishing activities are minimal and mainly for sports angling. Many dams have been stocked with M. salmoides. One farmer visited was interested to learn about the possibility of harvesting C. gariepinus for workers' rations using longlines.
FFI reported that a butcher in Tsumeb has been stocking and harvesting C. gariepinus from his farm dam and selling the fish in Owambo. The mission was not able to obtain any futher information on this activity.
Although the level of exploitation is not known and may vary, problems which may inhibit exploitation of farm dams are lack of knowledge of appropriate fishing methods for the species present, low on-farm demand, and lack of marketing opportunities.
2.6.3 Oshanas
Central Owambo comprises the lower drainage of the Cuvelai river system, which rises in southern Angola and drains through Owambo to the Etosha Pan. The amount of annual water flow through the Owambo portion of the Cuvelai depends on the level of rainfall in the headwaters and the size of the resulting flood. The floods, known locally as efundjas, are variable: in some years the flood reaches Owambo and in some it doesn't. Three times since 1941, the flood has been large enough to reach the Etosha Pan (van der Wall 1991b).
In Owambo, with its flat terrain and impermeable soils, the Cuvelai systems forms oshanas, which are “shallow, often vegetated, interconnected channels and pans with very low gradients in which water accumulates, moves or stands” (GRN 1992). Young fish from the Cuvelai headwaters colonize oshanas during the annual floods and are left stranded in the oshanas when the flood subsides. As the oshanas dry out over several months due to evaporation, local people fish them to extinction using many local gears, catching mainly C. gariepinus, O. andersonii, O. macrochir, and Barbus paludinosus. The size of the annual harvest varies with the size of the flood and there have been no systematic surveys of catches. Van der Waal (1991b) estimated a catch of 250 t from seven oshanas over 60 days along the main road during a small efundja.
There have been significant alterations to the oshana environment over the past three decades. A canal system has been constructed from the Cunene River to supply towns in Owambo with year-around water. As a result, at least 32 new species have been introduced to the Cuvelai system. In addition, O. mossambicus is widely distributed, introduced from the south by persons unknown. The Olushandja reservoir, formed by damming both ends of an large oshana, serves as a balancing reservoir for the canal system and supports a year-around fishery.
The RDC at Ongwediva has annually stocked fish in about 50 oshanas since 1989, as described in Section 2.5. Common ownership of land is percieved by RDC as a limitation for development of aquaculture in Owambo. Fingerling production must take place at centralized sites with year-around water, and distribution is expensive. There is also concern about the environmental impact of man-made deepening of oshanas to hold water throughout the year for cattle watering (and, indirectly, aquaculture).
Government is currently undertaking an exercise to rationalize its functions and services. The responsibilities and structure of Ministries will soon change, as noted below.
MFMR is responsible for the stewardship and development of inland fishery resources, including aquaculture since 1992. This responsibility is effected through the Freshwater Section (soon to be the Inland Fisheries Subdivision) of the Commercial Resources Division, Directorate of Resource Management. The Freshwater Section comprises two fisheries biologists (one PhD, one MSc) and supporting staff based at FFI, Hardap Dam, in central Namibia. Their specialities are on river fisheries conservation. There is a third unfilled (and currently frozen) post for a fisheries biologist, with responsibility for fisheries in state dams and aquaculture. There are no staff assigned permanently to the field. Scouts from the Directorate for Nature Conservation, MWCT, are sometimes used to monitor fisheries. FFI is relatively well endowed by MFMR with facilities, vehicles and operating funds.
The main focus of MFMR is marine resources, which are abundant in Namibia. In the freshwater sector the emphasis has been on conservation, mainly of river and floodplain fisheries, rather than development. There is some discussion of moving FFI from Hardap to northern Namibia to be closer to the freshwater resources. The “white paper” currently being formulated on freshwater fisheries policy will include development activities in the context of the strong marine resource.
MAWRD comprises seven directorates. The Directorate of Agriculture (DOA) and the Directorate of Rural Development (DRD) relate to aquaculture development.
MFMR and MAWRD do not have a mechanism to coordinate aquaculture activities at the central or field levels, and no attempt to do so can be made until the rationalisation exercise is completed in late 1993.
There are many national and international NGOs active in agriculture and rural development. Local NGOs are weak, especially in northern Namibia, where they were discouraged by the South African Defence Forces during the occupation up to 1990. Because of weak Government services at the local level, due in part to elimination of second tier authorities at independence, NGOs play an important role in many aspects of rural development.
The potential for aquaculture and small reservoir fisheries in Namibia is a function of the limited physical resources, marine and freshwater fisheries production, and the nature of demand for fish.
Physical resources for aquaculture generally decline in Namibia from north to south, although they are marginal for aquaculture even in the north. Conversely, small reservoir resources are much greater in the south, where they are virtually unexploited. Inexpensive and abundant tinned and frozen marine fish are available in market centres throughout the country, and there are strong freshwater fisheries in the north. There is insufficient information to assess demand for fish, but Namibia's per capita annual consumption of 4 kg is moderate relative to other countries in the region. There are identifiable groups in northern Namibia which could benefit from increased dietary protein and improved household food security from fish produced through aquaculture.
Three opportunities are identified where aquaculture and small reservoir fisheries could be developed within this context. No attempt is made to quantify the potential production; rather, it is estimated that an overall net gain in living standards could be obtained by prudently pursuing these opportunities. More detailed investigations would be needed to establish absolute measures of potential.
Owambo's main resource is the oshana system, which supports a seasonal fishery which could be extended by aquaculture techniques. However, potential inputs are low, and the area has good infrastructure which conveys significant marine and freshwater fish imports. There is also concern about environmental damage to the oshanas resulting from development. Aquaculture development in Owambo should be carefully focussed in physical and economic terms.
The location of dams and the composition of the fisheries will strongly influence overall potential.
Planning activities:
Development activities:
